Anti-Semitism

Identification: Anti-Semitism is the “hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group” (Webster, 1963). It has shown itself repeatedly throughout history. It has been witnessed in many different parts of the world, but with the most severity in Europe. Anti-Semitism has conjured itself as a very violent and terrible prejudice. The most widely known instance of Anti-Semitism is the Holocaust of the Second World War, where millions of Jewish people were tortured and killed. The Holocaust is not the only instance of mass murdering of Jews. English Anti-Semitism in the year 1290 was so bad that “the Jews were expelled from the realm and not readmitted until 1656.”(Stansky, 2011).

Historical Significance: Anti-Semitism is important because it has been relevant for hundreds of years in our society. The severity of Anti-Semitism has varied throughout History. From major events such as the Holocaust, to more recent problems like the organized contemporary anti-Semitic groups situated in Ukraine. This organization is in fact a place of higher learning. It is called MAUP and is Ukraine’s largest private University. The university is responsible for “about 85% of the Anti-Semitic literature in Ukraine.”(Rudling, 2006). This means that Anti-Semitism is not only alive in modern day society, but it has a place to thrive. This is unsettling, and shows that very little progress has been made to escape the brutal actions of previous Anti-Semites. In the case of the Holocaust, Adolph Hitler was the man that pushed for the elimination of Jews. Hitler was a very influential man in Germany during the time of the Holocaust, which made the Anti-Semitic beliefs spread throughout the Country. The University MAUP could have very similar effects over the country of Ukraine since it has already amassed a large number of followers.  The factor that makes this situation even more problematic is that the Ukrainian government has acknowledged the actions of the University and hasn’t condemned them. It is unlikely that anything could happen on the same scale as the Holocaust, but it seems as if the same structure is set it place. This shows for the potential of History repeating itself.

Key historical proponents: Adolph Hitler is a name known for his cruelty towards Jewish people. He is responsible for the death of millions of Jews during the Second World War. His Anti-Semitic actions started to take place with the publication of his book Mein Kampf. This book held the outline for what he planned to do to the Jewish people once he took power of Germany. Another more recent book that was published is The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews. 

This book was published by the Nation of Islam and is clearly a targeted attack on the Jews. The book is lacking in proper analysis of the subject of the Jews role in the slave trade, and makes them out as the worst perpetrator. The book is an attempt to slander the Jewish people, and to make them look like they were deserving of events such as the Holocaust. Although the Jewish people did have involvement in the slave trade, The Nation of Islam greatly overstated the Jewish role in the trade. The author Louis Farrakhan is a proud anti-Semite which makes this book even more difficult to be taken as factual. Moving back in History, other majorly influential figures like Karl Marx were anti-Semites. He published a book called A world without Jews where he said “What is the worldly religion of the Jew? Huckstering. What is his worldly God? Money.…. Money is the jealous god of Israel, in face of which no other god may exist.” (Marx 1959).  There are many instances of anti-Semitism in literature but these are from largely influential people and organizations.

Cameron Walsh

 

Bibliography

Marx, K. (1959). A world without jews. New York: Philosophical Library.

Rudling, P.A. (2006). Organized Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Ukraine: Structure, Influence and Ideology. Canadian Slavonice Papers, 48(1-2), 81-118

Stansky, P. (2011). The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 41(4), 635-636. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41057728

Webster, N. (1963). New collegiate dictionary. A Merriam-Webster. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co.

White Supremacism

Identification

White supremacists are a group of people with the belief that the white race is superior to any other race and that they should be given the rights to rule over their society. These supremacists have a large impact on the equality within America and around the world. The Ku Klux Klan has been a very influential supremacist group throughout history in the United States. They KKK was founded in 1865 and publicly reemerged in 1915. However, discrimination and racism has been around forever. This ‘Klan’ and all that they stand for continue to reappear as time goes on. White supremacy can be most dominantly seen in the United States, Germany, South Africa and Russia.

Historical Significance

The notion of white supremacy is important to be discussed because the people of a society need to become more aware of other’s belief systems, as well as how society itself has developed throughout history in ultimately encouraging racism within the country. This can be most predominately seen in the United States. The idea of white people being superior to other races and the ideology behind the Ku Klux Klan has been present for an extremely long time, although it may have been more dormant at different times. Recently, however, white supremacy has resurfaced in a more powerful way than imagined. Racism can be deeply rooted in American history and these previous events can still be present within any type of discrimination happening currently. The Ku Klux Klan historically express the growth of the United States as a powerful ‘white nation’ created by white people themselves. Some of these beliefs made, more notably by the Ku Klux Klan don’t believe that they are being racist. They think that black people should not complain about previous events in history that have happened and that their white race is being discriminated against in the same way that black people have and are currently suffering.

Key Historical Proposals

Throughout history, there has been many key characters who have spoken about, been a part of or tried to deter white supremacy. The most significant movement which supported the notion of white supremacy, is Nazism. This ideology, lead by Adolf Hitler, believed that the Aryan race was to be more powerful and superior to any other. Through this movement came the Holocaust, which attempted to destroy an entire race. This can be contradictory to Abraham Lincoln’s outlook on equality. This President was in charge of one of the most important civil rights movements in the United States. He is considered one of the most influential presidents due to the fact that he emancipated slavery and tried to establish and ensure a discriminatory free country. If you fast forward 152 years through American Presidencies, you can easily make comparisons to the 2017 President, Donald Trump. Throughout his time as President he has come across many displays of discrimination and white supremacy. As a result, President Trump has done nothing to deter these types of actions. There are many politicians or leaders, that have had their encounters with the notion of white supremacy. However, it is clear, the problems of the past are still present today.

Emily Srebot

 

Bibliography

McLemore, Dale. Racial and Ethnic Relations in America. Allyn and Bacon, 1991. Novick, Michael. White Lies White Power. Common Courage Press, 1995.

Pannell, William. The Coming Race Wars? A Cry for Reconciliation. Zondervan Publishing House, 1993.

Tribalism

Tribalism is described as the state of being organized into tribes; tribes are built on mutual identification, and members have an obligation to be loyal to their tribe, attacking outside forces who threaten their people. The creation of concept of tribalism cannot be attributed to one figure in history. It dates to the paleolithic period, where cooperation and alliances between humans was necessary for survival. The term can refer to tribes in a traditional sense, such as the Xhosa in South Africa, but in modernity, it primarily refers to more figurative tribes based political parties, beliefs, or characteristics that are mutually shared between people.

The significance of tribalism lies in its role as a joining force, as brings people together through shared beliefs, goals, culture, and more. However, tribalism is also dividing and exclusionary; when someone does not fit perfectly into a group, they are ostracized and make their own ‘tribe.’ Simultaneously, vehement and unwavering loyalty to a tribe can also make its people close-minded and apprehensive towards change. In a sense, tribalism is a form of proto-nationalism, both espouse loyalty to one’s social group. Tribalism’s roots are within human nature; historically, people in traditional tribes surrounded themselves with those who shared beliefs, values, and language to name a few. In modernity, factors such as shared values and beliefs cause people to associate with different political groups. Today, it is common for people to divide into smaller within the same group, causing conflict not only between groups but also within groups, as evident in American political parties. Understanding the power of tribalism provides a great amount of insight into motivations, actions and beliefs of the past by explaining the mindset that is held by people. For instance, the tribalism present in Nazi Germany meant that Jewish, disabled, gay, Romani people, and many others were viewed as threat to the desired German society at the time, leading to the mass genocide that would eventually unfold.

When analyzed closely, tribalist ideologies can be seen throughout history. Nelson Mandela, former South African president, is commonly associated with championing against tribalism; he spent much of his life discovering the dangers of tribalism and advocating for unity. When he began his career in politics in 1944, he saw how divided South Africa was, and that the division led to conflict between the various cultural and racial groups within the nation. He was first concerned with the well being of his tribe, then he gradually included the interest of the rest of the black population, the communists, the Indian population, and finally advocated for the unity of all South Africans, regardless of race or culture. When Mandela was elected in 1994, it showed how many South Africans were casting tribalism aside, and moving into the future as a stronger, united nation. Similarly, Afghanistan was home to an abundance of cultural groups that had been collected into one nation. Tribalism flourished within this environment, as each group of people stuck strongly together, and opposed others. Led by Adbur Rahman in the 1890’s, the Pashtun people, who followed Sunni Islam, declared jihad against the Hazaras, another ethnic group that followed Shiite Islam; the declaration was followed promptly with the persecution and marginalization of the Hazara people.

Lor Richardson

 

Bibliography

Bachrach, Susan. “Deadly Medicine.” The Public Historian 29, no. 3 (2007): 19-32. Accessed October 9, 2017. Historical Abstracts. Keywords: Nazi Germany, eugenics.

James, Paul. “Relating Global Tensions: Modern Tribalism and Postmodern Nationalism.” Communal/Plural 9, no. 1 (April 2001): 11-31. Accessed October 10, 2017. Google Scholar. Keyword: Tribalism.

Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom. New York City: Back Bay Books, 2013.

Williams, Brian G. “Afghanistan after the Soviets: From Jihad to Tribalism.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 25, no. 5/6 (September 2014): 924-56. Accessed October 9, 2017. Historical Abstracts. Keyword: tribalism.

Zenman, Phillip M. “Tribalism and Terror.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 20, no. 3/4 (September 2009): 681-709. Historical Abstracts. Keyword: tribalism.

Libertarianism

Identification (~100 words)

Libertarianism is the political ideology which upholds individual freedom and autonomy as its primary principle. The ideology has roots since Aristotle, but it was solidified and formalized during the Enlightenment period in Europe (18^th Century). Freedom of choice, political autonomy, and voluntary association in civic duties are often regarded as core Libertarian values. However, Libertarianism cannot be considered a definite political ideology because its interpretation and relation to contemporary political and economic institutions vary greatly. For example, some proponents of libertarianism claim that a society free of government intervention in economic affairs maximizes the individual liberty of its citizens, while others critique this claim, stating that it perpetuates class divisions and that collective ownership is a better means of maximizing individual liberty.

Historical significance (~200 words)

The concept of freedom has roots in both Eastern and Western philosophies, from Lao-Tzu to Aristotle. Libertarianism fully began to take its present form in Europe during the Enlightenment Period; Locke formalized the idea of natural law, stating that “A Government is not free to do as it pleases…  The law of nature stands as an eternal rule to all men, legislators as well as others.” People’s rights were considered inalienable and the purpose of the state was to protect those rights and the private property of its citizens. These ideas formed the basis for many subsequent revolutions, including the French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, and even the Russian and Spanish Revolutions which were indicative of the rise of communism. They viewed the oppressive autocracies of their day as irreconcilable with the fundamental rights of humans, and thought that such a tyrant regime would fail their inherent responsibility to their citizens. Also, the ideology of libertarianism influenced the institution of a democratic government; the US declaration of independence was largely based on Enlightenment ideals which advocated the liberty and sovereignty of individuals. Distinguished Harvard Historian Bernard Bailyn stated: “Written constitutions; the separation of powers; bills of rights; limitations on executives, on legislatures, and courts; restrictions on the right to coerce and wage war—all express the profound distrust of power that lies at the ideological heart of the American Revolution and that has remained with us as a permanent legacy ever after.” The values of the American Revolution, such as decentralized government and unalienable personal freedoms, were no doubt heavily influenced by libertarian thought. Civil rights movements later were also greatly influenced by the ideas of libertarianism, whether it be the freedom to practice your religion freely, or marry your partner regardless of their identified gender. However, the idea of libertarianism has also been used to justify the marginalization of minorities. Some interpret the liberty of individuals to encompass the right to discriminate against others, such as Senator Rand Paul, who stated that “[E]very piece of anti-discrimination legislation passed over the past few decades, ignores one of the basic, inalienable rights of man — the right to discriminate. [Though] eliminating racial and sexual prejudice [had] noble aspiration, [anti-discrimination laws] necessarily utilize the ignoble means of coercive force.” The Civil Rights Acts (1964) had a paradoxical effect on libertarians: it attempted to expand individual freedom by expanding a central power (and its subsequent influence and power over matter concerning individuals). Clearly, the idea that minimal government intervention would lead to increased freedom for all is quite naïve, and the struggle between opposing freedoms and rights of individual continues to shape the contemporary social and political climate.

Key historical proponents (~200 words)

Many theologians, politicians, and philosophers have debated and argued about the nature of freedom and its relation to the authority of the state. John Locke, considered by many to be the Father of modern political philosophy, was greatly influential in the development of libertarianism as a solidified ideology. In his monumental work “Two Treatises of Government,” he claimed that humans are subjected to natural law, which was more fundamental than any institutionalized state law. This idea embodies the follow excerpt from his work: “Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.”  Therefore, the rights of man that were guaranteed under such natural law should not, for any reason, be limited or prohibited by the state. In fact, according to Locke, the primary role of the state was to preserve the liberty and freedoms of individuals. Adam Smith, the Father of Modern Economics, applied this specifically to the economic activity of a society, claiming that the government should not intervene with the market, and that when left on its own, the market would maintain its equilibrium due to the guidance of the “invisible hand.” Lack of regulations on trade and business, as well as low taxes and an absent social welfare system, are hallmarks of a libertarian, or “Laissez-Faire,” economic system. However, there have been many critiques of libertarianism, ranging from ethical to economic to environmental. For example, criticisms of the Laissez-Faire economic system (that Smith was a proponent of) claim that lack of intervention leads to a monopolization of the market (which would subsequently stifle fair competition and innovation). Additionally, market failures often necessitate government intervention (according to renowned economist John M. Keynes). Austrian economist Friedrich Hayek also stated that polarized economic classes often necessitate the redistribution of wealth (or at the very least well-funded social welfare programs) to maintain a healthy economy.

Zachary Manesiotis

 

Bibliography

1. Vallentyne, Peter. “Libertarianism.” (2008)
2. Graber, Mark A. Transforming free speech: The ambiguous legacy of civil libertarianism. Univ of California Press, 1991.
3. Locke, John. Locke: Two treatises of government student edition. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
4. Boaz, David. The Libertarian Mind: A Manifesto for Freedom. Simon and Schuster, 2015.
5. Block, Walter E. “Natural Rights, Human Rights, and Libertarianism.” American Journal of Economics & Sociology, vol. 74, no. 1, Jan. 2015, pp. 29-62. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1111/ajes.12086.

Racism

Racism is said to be as old as human society itself. Since human beings have been on Earth, people have always disliked/hated people coming from a different race and/skin colour. This is just like saying that racism is apart of human nature.  People who feel like they are being threatened/intimidated are the ones that are mainly racist, most of the time. Racism is a specific form of oppression. It’s the discrimination against a group of people based on the notion that a characteristic such as skin colour, makes them inferior to their oppressors. Racism is definitely being used all over the world, but is very endemic/entrenched in the United States, as white supremacists want black people killed or out of America.

Racism is very important as it is very wrong to treat someone different because of their skin colour. It is also important because, there still isn’t enough awareness around the issue, as people are still racist today, and people of varying backgrounds are negatively affected by this issue. 25-40% of people said that they would discriminate against ethnic minorities in the United Kingdom. (McKenzie, Kwame. “Racism and Health : Antiracism Is an Important Health Issue.” BMJ : British Medical Journal, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd,) It even happens sometimes in the workplace or even behind your back as well. Racism could also be taught down from many generations, especially from white supremacists, as their grandfathers taught them how to not be friends with other races other than your own. Racism’s history has influenced the contemporary moment as we see black and people of other nations protesting for equality and peace. The sad thing is that some people even think racism is dead and that the world is far more peaceful than before, which is quite a sad thing to consider.

We are seeing a lot more police brutality against people of different skin colour, still slave trade going on in many third-world/independent countries, and people of other skin colour really having to work twice as hard as other people in this world, due to what the people feeling threatened of you think of who you are. This ism could lighten past actions, beliefs and motivations if we all just treat each other like one big family, even if they look completely different from you. If we all stop with the prejudice suspicions and maybe even try to compromise by making a peace treaty possibly, the world would really change for the better. Racism was also something that heavily influenced policies and laws. So for a very long time, their were segregated schools, shopping malls, libraries and even more. This is still prevalent in contemporary societies because black and marginalized people encounter systemic barriers that affect their everyday life. White men were also more likely to get hired over people of colour.

Some people that approve of racism are Richard Spencer, Steve Bannon, Adolf Hitler, and Joseph Stalin. Richard Spencer is the President of the National Policy Institute, which is a white supremacist movement. Steve Bannon was the former chief adviser for Donald Trump. He was apart of the Alt-Right movement, which supports white supremacists, Neo-Natzis and Anti-Semites. Adolf Hitler was the leader of the Nazi Party, who killed 8 million Jews during the Holocaust. Joseph Stalin was the former general of the Soviet Union who killed his own citizens in his own country.

Rosa Parks, Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X are just a few civil rights activists that were most associated in attacking racism. Rosa Parks was known for standing up for racism when she was assaulted for sitting on the front of the bus, instead of sitting in the back, where the black people were supposed to sit. This was really when people were starting to realize how bad discrimination really was, as people were watching her get beat. Civil right leaders now rose up and wanted to put an end to this horrible act. Nelson Mandela was the former president of South Africa who also stood up for human/civil rights and wanted peace all over the world, and especially in South Africa. Steve Biko was a South African activist who wanted peace in South Africa, just like Mandela, and was the leader of the Black Consciousness Party. Martin Luther King Jr. was known for his famous “I Have A Dream” speech in 1963, which was about black people and people of different nations being free and how everyone no matter what skin colour you have should be all together as a family. He also led the famous march, which consisted of a quarter million people wanting to have Civil Rights in America on the same day called the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. This was one of the largest political rallies in history. Malcolm X was known to be an amazing spokesperson and for symbolizing the “Black Power” notation, and also really motivating black people so they wouldn’t lose their dignity of who they are.

Tobi Osisanya

 

Bibliography

American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association,

McKenzie, Kwame. “Racism and Health : Antiracism Is an Important Health Issue.” BMJ : British Medical Journal, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 11 Jan. 2003,

Essed, Philomena, “Understanding Everyday Racism.” Sage Production, Google Books,

“Racism Is Poisoning Our Society.” Time, Time,

“The Roots of Racism.” SocialistWorker.org

History.com Staff. “March on Washington.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2009, 

Millward, David. “Who Was Steve Biko and Why Is He so Important to South Africa?” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 18 Dec. 2016,

Individualism

First coined in France, thinkers took on different views on the topic of individualism and the possible impact it could serve on society. It is a nineteenth century expression that was used in France as a response to the French Revolution, and is used widely among different countries where it has played an important role in the history of ideas and ideologies (Lukes, 45). Conservative thinkers in France did not like the idea of individualism at the time it was formed, as they perceived it as a threat to political order (Mohd, 126). From France, individualism travelled to Germany, the U.K. and the United States of America, where it would be supported and disapproved by other thinkers (Mohd, 128). Along with those who perceived the term in a negative sense, there were also thinkers who supported the term and promoted it within different societies.

As the term travelled from France to Germany, it gained more importance as people began to define its meaning. In France, the term looked at the selfish interests of people (Mohd, 127) and was seen as a concept that would weaken the authority because of the sudden growth of individual opinion (Lukes, 46). The idea of individualism negated the popular concept at the time which stated that men had only existed for society and society only educated men for the benefit of itself (Lukes, 47). However, once it travelled to Germany, individualism took on the idea of individuals freely seeking out different opportunities, and German thinkers saw it as a form of progression (Mohd, 127). Its significance has been represented in the modern day, as different social movement and reforms have taken place, all deriving from the concept of freedom of conscious, thought and speech. When it was once thought by many to be something that would destroy the commonwealth (Lukes, 46), it has been shown over the years to be progressive in terms of human development (Robinson, Scholfield, Braithwaite and Thomilson 2017, 278). The concept of individualism has brought along change as well, as in the 1970s, an individualistic society in Britain would allow for different perspectives on divorce, abortion and births outside of marriage to emerge (Robinson, Scholfield, Braithwaite and Thomilson 2017, 273). Individualism is defined as an individual that is sovereign over their own body and mind, and therefore promotes the idea that everyone should form their own opinions and fulfill their own responsibilities, as it will lead to social development and the well-being of the public (Rudman and Aldrich 2017, 3).

Many thinkers in the 1800s posited different views on the idea of individualism, which only demonstrated its power and significance within societies. In France, thinkers like Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Tocqueville and Alexis de Pierse Leroux were opposed to it as they said it displayed the selfish interests of people. Another thinker of the time named Saint-Simone argued that individualism was tied to anarchy and egotism, and acted as a threat towards authority (Mohd, 126). Tocqueville argued that it was the “natural product of democracy” and regarded it as an evil concept for society to adopt (Lukes, 52), and Joseph de Maistre claimed that it undermined hierarchy within a society. In contrast to these French thinkers, there were a handful of German thinkers who supported the idea of individualism and saw it as a form of progression. Some of these thinkers included Fichte, Hegel, Schelling and Schleiermacher (Lukes, 57), most of whom regarded individualism as progressive as it looked at the freedom and sacredness of a person (Lukes, 51). As the idea of individualism travelled to America in the mid-1800s, American thinkers also supported the movement, and claimed that it would bring social development, moral and religious significance with it (Mohd, 128). With the many different thinkers discussing the impact that individualism would have on society, the movement gained importance as it was perceived as something that could greatly impact society either positively or negatively.

Mira Kashyap

 

References

Debbie Laliberte Rudman, Rebecca M. Aldrich. (2017) Discerning the social in individual stories of occupation through critical narrative inquiry. Journal of Occupational Science 0:0, pages 1-12.

Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, Natalie Thomlinson; Telling Stories about Post-war Britain: Popular Individualism and the ‘Crisis’ of the 1970s, Twentieth Century British History, Volume 28, Issue 2, 1 June 2017, Pages 268–304, https://doi-org.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/10.1093/tcbh/hwx006

Lukes, S. (1971). The Meanings of “Individualism”. Journal of the History of Ideas, 32(1), 45-66. doi:10.2307/2708324

Mohd. AKHTAR KHAN. (1987). INDIVIDUALISM: ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 48(1), 126-132. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41855869

Environmentalism

Identification (~100 words)
Environmentalism is a political, philosophical and social movement that works towards the protection of our environment by reducing our carbon footprint. Environmentalism has gained more supporters with today’s corporate world emphasizing profits over nature. Environmentalism first arose at the International Congress for the Protection of Nature in Paris in 1909, shortly after the effects of the industrial revolution began to be noticed, but has now spread worldwide. In modern times, governments and supporters have started prioritizing the earth in their policies, laws and ideologies and began keeping their emissions to a minimum, in hopes of achieving environment sustainability.

Historical significance (~200 words)
Environmentalism is the key to success if we are to continue thriving the way we have been. Corporations are focusing on profits not sustainability, but if we don’t replenish our resources, there becomes a point where they run out. We will not be able to survive if this happens. In the past, companies and governments were aware of their negative effects on their environment, but the idea of capitalism drove them to continue. According to Kristen Shorette from the University of California, capitalism emerged in the 16th century and this is what sparked the decline in environmental sustainability. Trade became the main concern for countries which meant they needed to produce more and in turn, more resources were needed. This idea still persists today. The trends in history have pushed us to be more concerned with our environment today. We are aware that profit comes at the expense of our resources which is why governments have started to tax emissions, involve themselves in anti-pollution pacts and funded programs to try and help clean up the messes of the past. Still, companies continue to push nature to the side and the environment is considered an after thought by many developing countries.

Key historical proponents (~200 words)
Former Vice President and Democratic nominee for the 2000 election, Al Gore was one of the most notable environmentalists. Gore’s campaign was based on an eco-friendly administration that would put forward new green policies. The government that had proceeded George W. Bush’s administration (and Gore’s nomination) had little concern for the environment. They emphasized economic growth at the cost of their natural resources which sparked a series of environmental crises. Gore attempted to push the voters to vote for a green administration through debate and raised a series of environmental issues to the forefront of politics. Gore ended up losing the election but his campaign helped illuminate our environmental problems.

 

Current President of The United States, Donald Trump, is an outspoken opponent to environmentalism. He has negated several eco-friendly policies that former administrations have put forward, especially with his promise to review the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change. In this agreement, The United States promised and set goals to reduce their impact on the climate and regulate emissions. In late 2017, President Trump announced that The United States would withdraw from this agreement. This event could have devastating impacts on the environment as The United States is one of the leaders in annual emissions produced.

Benjamin Edwards

 

Bibliography

Conca, K. (2000). The environment in Campaign 2000: laying a foundation for citizen activism. Dissent (00123846), 47(3), 31-37.

Falkner, R. (2012). Global environmentalism and the greening of international society. International Affairs, 88(3), 503-522.

Gowan, R. (2017). END TIMES DIPLOMACY AT THE UN. Journal Of International Affairs, 70(2), 17-28.

Hunold, C., & Leitner, S. (2011). ‘Hasta la vista, baby!’ The Solar Grand Plan, environmentalism, and social constructions of the Mojave Desert. Environmental Politics, 20(5), 687-704.

Krupp, F. (2017). Trump and the Environment. Foreign Affairs, 96(4), 73-82. Bosco, D. (2017). WE’VE BEEN HERE BEFORE: THE DURABILITY OF MULTILATERALISM. Journal Of International Affairs, 70(2), 9-15.

Shorette, K. (2012). Outcomes of Global Environmentalism: Longitudinal and Cross-National Trends in Chemical Fertilizer and Pesticide Use. Social Forces, 91(1), 299-325.

Staggenborg, S., & Ogrodnik, C. (2015). New environmentalism and Transition Pittsburgh. Environmental Politics, 24(5), 723-741.

You should be conducting library research for this assignment. List at least three sources you consulted—not(!) encyclopedias or online links. I recommend at least one book and two peer- review articles found in one of the library’s journal databases.

Totalitarianism

Becoming a very popular term by the beginning of World War II, totalitarianism is a very “heavy” word, meaning when one uses it to describe a certain world government, then they are criticizing that government and accusing them of mistreatment of their citizens and unwillingness to give up power. The official definition of totalitarianism is “A form of government that theoretically permits no individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the authority of the state.” Throughout history there have been many rulers who are considered to have run a totalitarian government. Individuals such as Benito Mussolini with Italy during WWII, along with Mao Zedong when he ruled The People’s Republic of China from 1949 – 1959.  Moreover, an exceptionally infamous case of a totalitarian government was Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Germany. Hitler was able to obtain power through a democratic sense, but once he obtained the title of chancellor he immediately suspended all other political parties making him the sole ruler of Germany.  He frequently stressed that the state was of the upmost importance, and that he meant to bring glory back to Germany, as at the time it was in the midst of a severe economic depression. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime often used propaganda as a tool to sway the masses into support for whatever policy they were introducing. He is quoted as saying “All propaganda has to be popular and has to accommodate itself to the comprehension of the least intelligent of those whom it seeks to reach.” In order to truly accomplish his goals, he had to strip his citizens of the knowledge and transparency that is often demanded of a government, through using propaganda and leading them to think that what the Nazi’s were doing was right and had to be done in order for Germany to be a world power again. Hitler has also commented on totalitarianism himself, praising it for its ability to strike fear in others, “The great strength of the totalitarian state is that it forces those who fear it to imitate it.” Adolf Hitler ran a government in which he was the single person who possessed all the power, he used propaganda to strike fear in the hearts of the German people without letting them know what was truly happening behind closed doors; he also stressed the importance of the state, and said everything he was doing no matter how heinous or unethical, was all in the name of bringing glory back to Germany.

Totalitarianism was very prominent during the time shortly before and during WWII, there were many examples of totalitarian governments, but in the end the philosophy stays the same, it is a form of rule that involves one person holding all the power, while simultaneously suspending the or simply banning the rights of others, all in the name of the progression of the state itself.

Spencer Sullivan

 

Bibliography 

“40 Adolf Hitler Quotes on War, Politics, Nationalism, And Lies.” GeckoandFly. July 30, 2017. Accessed October 15, 2017. https://www.geckoandfly.com/19916/adolf-hitler-quotes-war-politics-nationalism-lies/.

“Adolf Hitler Quotes.” BrainyQuote. Accessed October 15, 2017. https://www.brainyquote.com/authors/adolf_hitler.

“Benito Mussolini.” Biography.com. April 28, 2017. Accessed October 14, 2017. https://www.biography.com/people/benito-mussolini-9419443.

Fairweather, Nicolas. “Hitler and Hitlerism: Germany Under the Nazis.” The Atlantic. October 03, 2017. Accessed October 14, 2017. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1932/04/hitler-and-hitlerism-germany-under-the-nazis/308961/.

Schram, Stuart Reynolds. “Mao Zedong.” Encyclopædia Britannica. July 18, 2017. Accessed October 15, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mao-Zedong.

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Totalitarianism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. August 16, 2017. Accessed October 12, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism.

Wilde, Robert. “Hitler’s Rise to Power: Timeline.” ThoughtCo. Accessed October 13, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/hitlers-rise-to-power-timeline-1221353.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism seeks to maximise economic and social liberties by limiting government coercion to a minimal degree. Placing great emphasis on the power of economic forces, believing that the free market is the tool which leads to human progression (Harvey, 3). Such policies would take the form of a free market, property rights, free trade and a deregulated labour market. It is also the role of government to encourage the creation of new markets, reflected in policies otherwise characterized by government dis-involvement. Neoliberalism could be seen implemented in the West as early as the 1930s while the Great Depression had begun. This was in the form of Keynesian Economics modeled after the work of John Maynard Keynes, regarded as one of the most influential economic thinkers; his theories are still applied this day. Keynesian Economics calls for the reform of monetary and fiscal policy, this may include the central bank to change interest rates, or the investment into infrastructure to stimulate the economy. This widely adopted post depression paradigm was accepted by most developed countries. However, Keynesian Economics started to fail by the 1970s as high inflation was met with stagnate economic growth. In the west between 1965 and 1975 inflation rates rose nearly 12%, causing devastating economic inequality for the rising middle class. The highly-regarded economics professor Paul Krugman had contributed this to the coast of the Vietnam war and an oil crisis experienced in the 1970s. The Vietnam war had forced the USA into a deficit, enough that offshore investors had withdrawn their assets from US accounts. Next contemporary president Richard Nixon had taken away the gold standard value of the US dollar, the international price of gold had increased drastically while the dollar continued to devalue. These to events had started a global trend of inflation due to the interconnectedness of global markets. The oil crisis of the 1970s had decreased the production of goods as prices continued to rise, creating stagnation. In response to this global crisis contemporary neoliberal politics were implemented, for example President Ronald Regan had cut taxes for owners of business and deregulated the labour market decreasing the power of labour unions. The result was a nearly 400% increase in the wages of CEOs and stagnate wages for their workers. These policies were mirrored across the west and although devastating for the middle class, did stop the rise of inflation. Neoliberalism has modeled government policy for the past several decades and as such has contributed to nearly all events in someway, for example the rise of the third world debt crisis. As central banks gave loans to developing nations interest’s rates increased drastically limiting economic prosperity severely for third world nations. An addition example would be the current states of the Canadian labour market. High deregulation in the 1970s and early 2000s has caused a huge influx in precarious work, making the lives of the working class more difficult as poorly paid and stable labour mixed with decreased social welfare decreased economic stability of the average Canadian. Ultimately neoliberalism often favours the rich and fosters a platform which leads to severe income inequality.

Michael Emiljanovic

 

Bibliography

Harvey, D. (2011). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Hicke, J. (n.d.). A Short History of Neoliberalism (And How We Can Fix It). Retrieved October 15, 2017, from http://www.newleftproject.org/index.php/site/article_comments/a_short_history_of_neoliberalism_and_how_we_can_fix_it

Extremism

Extremism is the “advocacy of extreme measures or views.” It is seen all throughout history and exists today in the modern world. An example of extremism in history is Adolf Hitler and his actions to wipe out an entire race of people through extreme measures such as burning mass crowds alive or gunning down thousands. This is such a key example because it shows the extreme measures that Hitler put in place to enforce his view, that Jew’s were nothing but vermin. Having a certain view point and acting on it is one thing but when you implement extreme measures to convey your point and force your views on others through violence then you cross into the realm of extremism. Another example of extremism from history is the Tiananmen Massacre which consisted of peaceful Chinese protestors being gun downed in the streets because the Chinese government did not agree with their protests and believed their views were more important than the peoples. Instead of letting the protestors protest, the Chinese government used extreme measures to make sure that their view point was not corrupted. Both of these examples from history show that if someone has a strong enough view and the power to control, they will stop at nothing to make sure that everyone falls in line, even if it resorts to extreme measures. A more recent example of extremism in today’s society was the 9/11 terrorist attack which consisted of 2 commercial air planes being hijacked and crashed into the twin towers. This event was set in motion by a man named Osama bin Laden and the group he was a part of called Al-Qaeda. They had certain views that America was evil and they would stop at nothing to see them burn, so they resorted to extreme measures killing thousands just to make sure that they clearly convey their views. Extremism is taking your view point and forcing it on other people through violence and extreme acts of terror and stopping at nothing until your view point is seen throughout the world.

Matthew Holk

 

Bibliography:

Kazin, Michael. “A Kind Word for Ted Cruz: America Was Built on Extremism.” New Republic, 29 Oct. 2013, newrepublic.com/article/115399/history-american-extremism-how-unpopular-opinions-became-mainstrea.

Brueckner, Jan K, and Amihai Glazer. “Urban Extremism.” Jstor, Jstor, Oct. 2008, www.jstor.org.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/stable/pdf/40058168.pdf?refreqid=excelsior:a1d7ef2e46c792b73d2cc54426c29acd.

 

Nazism

Nazism is a form of german fascism. It played a prominent role in 1933, during world war II. Nazism was the practices and the beliefs of the Nationalist Socialist Worker’s Party, which was under the control of Adolf Hitler. Nazism had many views, as Michael Kellogg states, “…they developed intensely anti-western, anti-socialist, and anti-semitic views. These beliefs later found prominent expression in Hitler’s Nationalist Socialist movement…” (Kellogg, 18). The main purpose of nazism was to create a racially pure community for the germans. They wanted to unite a greater germany and they wanted to expand german territory. This was done by excluding other races that were seen to be less superior. Mass killings were performed to exterminate the weaker races, such as the jews.

Nazism is historically significant because, it incorporated war and genocide. Nazism influenced the contemporary moment by, influencing today’s wars, racism and nationalism. Till this day we still have wars, and these wars just like the cold war and world war II, shape our society. Furthermore, culture and race played a central role in nazism. Nazsim believed in the superiroty of germans and german as a nation. During this time racism and homophobia was very prominent. Especially, racism towards the jews. Today we still have racism and homophobia. Certain, nations exclude certain races. People all around the world continue to exclude others and make racial judgments. Hitler’s racism and homophobia is still present in many leader’s, citizens, and countries today. Nazism helps to illuminate past actions, beliefs and motivations such as previous wars, dictators, war tactics, and mass killings. As, Ian Kershaw states,“No Hitler: no general European war by the late 1930s. No Hitler: an alternative war strategy and no attack on the Soviet Union. No Hitler: no Holocaust, no state policy aimed at wiping out the Jews of Europe.” (Kershaw, 245). Furthermore, Nazism helps to reveal that during this time in history, racism, nationalism and militarism were three central motivations.

Kershaw states, “Nazism was Hitlerism, pure and simple.” (Kershaw, 242). Adolf Hitler is a key historical actor who is associated with nazism. After the defeat of the germans in the first world war, nazism was created. Originally it was influenced by German Nationalism, Völkisch nationalism and the Aryan race. But in the late 1920’s Adolf Hitler took control over nazism. Shortly after it became a prominent aspect in world war II. Another key organization that was associated with nazism was Aufbau. It was an organization that united non-germans, who wanted

to help Hitler and nazism grow. As Michael Kellogg states, “Interested people of other nationalities could join as extraordinary members if they could demonstrate their commitment to furthering Aufbau’s goals of far right German-Russian collaboration.”(Kellogg, 123). Thus, proving that Aufbau was one of Hitler’s allies, and was an organization created to strengthen Hitler and this evil war. On the other hand, some groups or individuals that were strongly against nazism were Camp Ritchie graduates. These were people who had fled from Hitler, and were now eager to fight against germany. Furthermore, Karl Marx was also against nazism. To be specific, Marx and his followers were against capitalism and racism, which is the polar opposite of what nazism and Hitler stood for.

Agnieszka Prymicz

 

Works Cited

Kershaw, Ian. “Hitler and the Uniqueness of Nazism.” Journal of Contemporary History , vol.

39, no. 2, 2004, pp. 239–254. JSTOR , JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3180723 .

Baldwin, Peter. “Social Interpretations of Nazism: Renewing a Tradition.” Journal of Contemporary History , vol. 25, no. 1, 1990, pp. 5–37. JSTOR , JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/260719 .

McLaughlin, Neil. “Nazism, Nationalism, and the Sociology of Emotions: Escape from Freedom Revisited.” Sociological Theory , vol. 14, no. 3, 1996, pp. 241–261. JSTOR , JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3045388 .

Kellogg, Michael , “ The Russian roots of Nazism: white émigrés and the making of National Socialism, 1917-1945.” Cambridge University Press, 2005. http://books1.scholarsportal.info.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/viewdoc.html?id=/ebooks/ebooks2/ca mbridge/2010-04-12/2/0511196607&page=138#tabview=tab0

Anarchism

Anarchism is a social concept for which the core belief is centered around society being able to operate efficiently without the presence of any form of government. Anarchy in a social context originates in 1840 with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon when he wrote What is Property? In this piece, Proudhon describes anarchism as anti-state and anti-capitalist ideals, saying that “property is exclusive” and theft in a sense as well, as he mentions that the production of property requires the exploitation of workers who will likely not get access to the property they have worked on.

Since Anarchism is the denying and resisting of authority, it has historically been a very relevant concept. Just before The Second World War, Anarchists in Spain found themselves able to fight for their beliefs, but also against Franco’s fascist regime. After the defeat of the Spanish Anarchists in 1937 and into World War 2, Anarchists found that supporting a particular side was rather difficult. This was due to the political interests of the Allies and Axis powers. One particular famous Anarachist, Rudolf Rocker who had criticized those who supported World War One, deemed the Allies the right cause for those with Libertarian values to support. After World War Two, Anarchists found themselves trying to find new meaning for their cause in a modern, post-war era. What many thought was that Anarchism could be adapted for the post-war world to be vigilant resistance to any kind of authority and domination in ever day life. Some Anarchist thinkers, such as Murray Bookchin saw the fight against authority and domination as a means to destroy long-standing hierarchies in society regarding gender, race and age. Bookchin believed that the right kind of revolution could usher in an age of non-hierarchy-based societies. Bookchin’s ideas for what Anarchism should become post-war were one of many at the time. Currently, Anarchists do not have any meaningful uniting ideology, which has resulted in their current political obscurity.

The men who are most commonly associated with the beginnings of Anarchist thinking in the mid 1800’s are Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin and Max Stirner. All of these men, along with the men who championed Marxism came from the dissipation of a group called the Young Hegelians, a group of men who had seen the necessity for a reform of the German upper classes. This was based off of radical thoughts inspired by the work of the Philosopher Georg Hegel. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were formerly members of the Young Hegelians as well, however when they left they criticized the ideology.

Proudhon was the first of these men to criticize the politics and economy of the time in his piece What is Property? Many of Proudhon’s ideas deal with Anarchy and contempt against capitalism and large industries. He laid out a vision of a society in which everyone is self-sufficient and produces their own goods and trades locally. Bakunin was an aristocrat and worked closely with Guillaume. He reversed Hegel’s idea of the State as “The march of God on earth”. Bakunin saw the State as the epitome of evil. He was a member of a group called the Narodniks who saw terror and violence as a way to dethrone the Czar and put in place a Communist order. Bakunin also saw Proudhon as the true father of Anarchism. Max Stirner, like Bakunin and Proudhon was a former Young Hegelian. His works are more inspired by those of Johann Fichte, a German Romantic philosopher. Stirner saw value in the individual and opposed ideals based around working together collectively, especially the ideals of Proudhon.

Adam Katz

 

References

(n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://journals.scholarsportal.info/details/13569317/v20i0002/134_tnaibaruopat.xml

Graham, R. (2014). Randall Amster, Anarchism Today. Retrieved October 12, 2017, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T002&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA392792944&docType=Book review&sort=RELEVANCE&contentSegment=&prodId=AONE&contentSet=GALE%7CA392792944&searchId=R1&userGroupName=ocul_mcmaster&inPS=true

Pauli, B. J. (2015, May 20). The New Anarchism in Britain and the US: towards a richer understanding of post-war anarchist thought. Retrieved October 12, 2017, from https://journals.scholarsportal.info/details/13569317/v20i0002/134_tnaibaruopat.xml