Voltaire

November 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778

Full name: François-Marie Arouet

From a first Glance, Voltaire appears to any old 18^th century philisophe, but if you dive deeper you find one of the most influential and famous enlightenment thinkers of all time. His views on religion, politics, and science would help to push society to how it operates today. The controversies he sparked and his mission to raise awareness of things such ad Newtonianism solidified both his fame and his infamy.

Voltaire both is and isn’t credited with the introduction of science and enlightenment ideas into the modern era. Although he was responsible for them becoming more public, he was not origin point of the ideas, rather he was a very large supporter of these ideas. A “popularizer” is what most people of his time would call Voltaire, using his literary skills he was able to spread to concepts of Newtonianism and rationalism in clear, concise and attractive ways. During his time as an Exile in France he grew alarge fascination with the immerging ideas of Newton, and would eventually become a complete supporter of Newtonianism. Voltaire even attended Newton’s funeral, where his famous though arose; “that great intellectual achievement might alter history.”² Newton had found fame and recognition through his discoveries, Voltaire would to the same through his writings. His works “were remarkable neither for depth of analysis, accuracy or originality but rather for cleverness of expression and ability to say quotable things at the right moment.”¹ This is where the controversy steps in however, many of his time considered him a fraud, or fake philisophe. He wasn’t a true scientist, and even after his role in the popularization of scientific ideas he was unable to keep up with them, in this is was seen as an amateur of science. He “achieved fame because his curiosity pushed him into an amazing variety of fields, because he was able to glean the essentials from the work of more thoroughgoing scholars, and because he had literary ability.”¹ , not because how was truly masterful or knowledgeable in science as the ideas the popularized.

Before becoming a criticized scientific supporter, Voltaire was primarily known for his playwriting. And as he had wished, his writings brought him immense fame and is what allowed his popularization of scientific and enlightenment ideas to come to fruition. Through his plays, poems, and novels he commented (and sometimes even slightly parodied) things like Newtonianism, rationalism, government, religion and history. His every growing interest in science would pave the way for future religious beliefs, eventually turning him extremely anti-religious. Many of Voltaire’s views on religion plant direct attacks of Judaism in fact it could be argues that his attacks of Judaism were unlined attacks on Christianity. Voltaire believed that “the Jews remained the same innately corrupt people they had always been and that they were still capable of doing additional harm, in the future, to the Europeans among whom they lived.”³ And would “single out the Jews not simply in order to pursue an indirect or veiled attack on the Christian religion but, in large part, because he considered them to be responsible for the very existence of that religion”³ His criticisms of religion would obviously bring him misfortune, as it was the 18^th century, but not before his enlightenment ideas were spread far an wide.

His popularization of ideas like government corruption helped others to question authority and how the higher ups should run their lives. His enthusiasm for science and remarks of religion helped to usher in the scientific age and the start to the end to religious control. Although not a true Scientific mind, Voltaire was both a fantastic writer and a true philosopher, and it is likely because of his writings that the world operates the way it does today.

Nic Verspaget

Works Cited

¹Rockwood O, Raymond. “Voltaire.” The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 9, No. 4 (Dec., 1937), pp. 493- 501. The University of Chicago Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899207

²Johnson, W. “Voltaire after 300 Years.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Jul., 1994), pp. 215-220. Royal Society Stable. http://www.jstor.org/stable/532163

³Arkush, Allan. “Voltaire on Judaism and Christianity.” AJS Review, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1993), pp. 223-243. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Jewish Studies. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1486572

Rosenthal, Jerome. “Voltaire’s Philosophy of History.” Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Apr., 1955), pp. 151-178. University of Pennsylvania Press Stable. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2707660

Topazio W, Virgil. “Voltaire, Philosopher of Human Progress.” PMLA, Vol. 74, No. 4 (Sep., 1959), pp. 356- 364. Modern Language Association. http://www.jstor.org/stable/460445

Zerffi G, G. “Voltaire, in His Relation to the Study of General History, from a Philosophical Point of View.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 10 (1882), pp. 344-370. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Royal Historical Society. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3678028

Anwar al-Awlaki – أنور العولقي‎‎

1971-2011

Anwar al-Awlaki was born in 1971 in New Mexico, the children of Yemeni Immigrants. Al-Awlaki spend most of his childhood in Yemen, but returned to the United States in 1990 to attend university, where found a passion and talent for preaching while a student (Reuters 2009). From 1994 to 2002 he worked as an imam in various mosques across the country (Shane 2015). In the weeks and months after the 9/11 attacks, al-Awlaki, an Imam at one of the nation’s largest mosques, quickly became the most visible face of moderate, American Islam. The American media, struggling to explain Islam to their viewers, were draw to this young, charismatic, American-educated Imam with perfect English, who the New York Times called “A new Generation of Muslim leader capable of merging East and West” (Goodstein 2001). After discovering two of the 9/11 hijackers had frequented his sermons, He was interviewed by FBI agents, who concluded that he knew the men, but was likely unaware of their plot (Reuters 2009). Despite this, extensive FBI surveillance of him and his family continued (Shane 2015).

Upon discovering the existence of his FBI file and the fact that the agency was aware of his habit of soliciting prostitutes, al-Awlaki traveled to London with his family for a scheduled speaking engagement in 2002, and never returned to the United States (Shane 2015). After living for a brief time in the UK he reportedly returned to his childhood hometown in Yemen, where he would live for the rest of his life. (BBC News 2011).

While his actions outside of the United States are not as clearly documented, several facts are clear. Al-Awlaki continued to preach, often in sermons delivered via YouTube. His message became increasingly militant. When Inspire, the English-language online magazine published by al-Qaeda, first appeared in 2010, it contained a number of articles by al-Awlaki (Lemieux et al. 2014, 354-371). Evan Kohlmann, a prolific counterterrorism researcher has said “Al-Awlaki condenses the al-Qaeda philosophy in to digestible, well-written treatises. They may not tell people how to build a bomb or shoot a gun, but he tells them who to kill, and why, and stresses the urgency of the mission” (Shane 2009).

In 2010, the United States placed al-Awlaki on the ‘kill list’ of suspected terrorists against whom lethal force was authorized (al-Awlaki 2013). On September 30^th, 2011. Anwar al-Awlaki was killed by a Predator Drone missile in an unidentified location in rural Yemen (BBC News 2011).

After his death, al-Awlaki’s legacy has been twofold. As the first American citizen killed by his own government without conviction or trial, his case has become a hotbed of legal and moral debate. In 2014, a court ordered that the Department of Justice release the memorandum containing their legal justification for al-Awlaki’s killing. In this document, the D.O.J argued that the “United States is engaged in a non-international armed conflict with al-Qaida.”, and because of that, the international laws about who can be targeted and where do not apply in the same way. (American Journal of International Law 2014, 550-555) This memorandum, has been used as the legal justification for further targeting of U.S. citizens in drone strikes and military actions. The same attack that killed Anwar al-Awlaki also killed American citizen Samir Khan, al-Awlaki’s primary collaborator on Inspire, although the United States denies intentionally targeting him. (Mazzetti 2015), and two weeks later, Anwar al-Awlaki’s 16-year-old son Abdulrahman al-Awlaki became the third American citizen killed by a drone strike in Yemen (al-Awlaki 2013).

Al-Awlaki’s death is legally contentious at best, but it also seems to have been ultimately ineffective. Viewed throughout the radical Islamist movement as a martyr, his message has lived on, primarily on YouTube, where some estimates say his sermons have been viewed as many as 20 million times (Shane, Perez-Pena and Breeden 2016). His messages have been linked to a majority of the Islamic terrorist attacks committed in the United States (Ghosh 2010). Nidal Malik Hassan, who killed 13 and at Fort Hood in 2009, had corresponded with al-Awlaki, as had Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab. who attempted to Northwest Airlines Flight 253 later that year (Shane 2015). Death seems to have done nothing to stop his influence though, the perpetrators of the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing, 2015 San Bernardino attack and the 2016 Orlando Nightclub shooting were all followers of al-Awlaki’s sermons (Shane, Perez-Pena and Breeden 2016).

Anwar al-Awlaki is dead, killed by his own government, in a controversial action that has reshaped the discourse on government power and what is allowed in the name of ‘peace and security’. Yet his message lives on as strong as ever, as perhaps the first great martyr of the Internet era, where information can be spread across the globe instantly, and in ways that are very difficult for governments to control or even monitor, Anwar al-Awlaki’s message has found an immortality he himself could not. The debate his death created, and the violence his words inspired, have both profoundly affected the modern world, and they will continue to for years to come.

Grace Michael

 

Works Cited

“United States’ legal justification for drone strike on Anwar al-Awlaki released” American Journal of International Law 108.3 (July 2014): 550-555.

“Obituary: Anwar al-Awlaki” BBC News, September 30, 2011.

“FACTBOX – Who is Anwar al-Awlaki” Reuters, December 24, 2009.

Al-Awlaki, Nasser. “The Drone That Killed My Grandson” The New York Times, July 17, 2013.

Ghosh, Bobby. “How Dangerous is the Cleric Anwar al-Awlaki?” TIME Magazine, January 13, 2010.

Goodstein, Laurie. “A NATION CHALLENGED: THE AMERICAN MUSLIMS; Influential American Muslims Temper Their Tone” The New York Times, October 19, 2001.

Lemieux, Anthony, Jarret Brachman, Jason Levitt and Jay Wood. “Inspire Magazine: A Critical Analysis of its Significance and Potential Impact Through the Lens of the Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills Model.” Terrorism & Political Violence.  Vol 26 Issue 2 (June 2014): 354-371.

Mazzetti, Mark. “Killing of Americans Deepens Debate Over Use of Drone Strikes” The New York Times, April 23, 2015.

Shane, Scott. “Born in the U.S. a Radical Cleric Inspires Terror” The New York Times, November 18, 2009.

Shane, Scott. “The Lessons of Anwar al-Awlaki” The New York Times, August 27, 2015.

Shane, Scott, Richer Perez-Pena and Aurelian Breeden “’In-Betweeners’ Are Part of a Rich Recruiting Pool for Jihadists” The New York Times, September 22, 2016.

Taylor, Adam. “The U.S. keeps killing Americans in drone stakes, mostly by accident” The Washington Post, April 23, 2015.

Charles Darwin

Charles Robert Darwin was born on February 12,1809 in Shrewsbury England and died on April 19, 1882 in the Kentish village of Downe.

Charles Darwin came from a well off family that had come out strongly from the Industrial Revolution. Through Charles Darwin’s innovations, a scientific revolution was created, he was able to take information that was blatantly clear and turn it into a new idea. Darwin was sent to school to become an Anglican clergyman due to the fact that he had no obvious talent, he then began to gravitate towards science and the scientific professors (Hesketh, 22). In this time, science was not taught so formally at these Christian Central Universities. (Ruse, 16). Darwin grew up in a time that strictly believed in the almighty God, furthermore disproving the notion that people could have been created in a way other than religiously (Cape, 27). Darwin began his science career by aiming his questions towards geology before his immense success as a biologist. Darwin had a strong devotion to the idea of climate theory which later helped in developing all the topics that he studied in the future. (Stone, 103). The most notable finding that furthermore changed Charles Darwin’s aspects on science was when he took a visit to the Galapagos Island. Upon returning from this trip Charles Darwin’s findings took a pivotal turn towards a concept of evolution (Hesketh, 17). Darwin reviewed his findings from the Galapagos island’s and came to a conclusion that the only way in which these animals could have survived was through evolving as they moved from island to island (Ruse, 21).

Darwinism and the ‘Origin of Species’ had a big impact on many different aspects of study, such as philosophy, religion and especially science. Many people throughout Darwin’s discovery had fallen victim to misconstruing the ideas and concepts that were introduced, most prevalent to religion (Ruse, 42). The theory of evolution has affected and are still very controversial within the religious communities. A notable piece work that helped in overall exemplifying some of the issues brought upon by these new scientific ideas was Inherit the Wind. This play fully encompassed the arguments in which a very religious town have with a teacher who feels as though he is given the right to talk about the theories of evolution (Stone, 67). Despite the fact that this was a fictional storyline, it fully encompasses the realities that much of the world was experiencing after Darwin’s discoveries and theories (Ruse, 55). It has been agreed that these theories would not have had as big of an impact as they did if it was not for the fact that the ideas were supported by other highly respected scientists. Many of these scientists helped in challenging the religious narratives of the development of animals, people, and the earth as a whole (Hesketh, 11). Although, the theories of evolution had lots that could be disputed against, the new ideas that came with it were enough to challenge religion and especially put the Bible under scrutiny (Stone, 39). Through Charles Darwin’s ideas of evolution, philosophy, science as a whole and the future of religion were all up for question.

 

Many reviews and opinions were made disagreeing or supporting the ‘Origin of Species’. Present day, even after the death of Charles Darwin, these same opposing views are argued (Cape, 4). The concept of natural selection was an astounding discovery due to the fact that in a time of no science and all religion, a contradictory an idea of evolution and adaptation was created and made sense to scientists. Rephrasing one of Charles Darwin’s most notorious quotes, it is not the strongest or smartest that survive, but the one who responds the best to change.

Emily Srebot

Works Cited

Cape, Jonathan. Evolution, Old & New. Eleven Gower Sreet, 1921.
Hesketh, Ian. Of Apes and Ancestors: Evolution, Christianity, and the Oxford debate. Toronto:

University of Toronto Press, 2009.
Ruse, Michael. Charles Darwin. Blackwell Publishing, 2008.
Ruse, Michael. Philosophy after Darwin: classic and contemporary readings. Princeton:

Princeton University Press, 2009.
Robert, Ryan M. Charles Darwin and the Church of Woodsworth. Oxford University Press, 2016 Stone, Irving. The Origin: A Biographical Novel of Charles Darwin. Garden City, New York:

Doubleday & Company, 1980.

Kwame Nkrumah

Kwame Nkrumah (September 21, 1909- April 27 1972) was a Ghanaian nationalist leader, who during the 1940’s and 1950’s led Ghana to independence from the British. He became the first African Prime Minister in the Commonwealth (1951) and Ghana’s first President after decolonization (1957), and carried with him his vision for a new Africa.

After World War II, Britain began to decline in its power and influence, while simultaneously, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was gaining influence and becoming a world superpower. This change of balance within the world would influence the political environment of Ghana greatly, and inspire Nkrumah and the nationalist movement for Ghanaian independence and his vision of a new, united, and powerful Africa. The British colonists often took advantage of the Ghanaian people; as Britain became more democratic, the same rights were not given to the Ghanaian people. In 1945, the British stole foreign exchange from cocoa farmers in order to strengthen the British Pound. However by doing so, Ghanaians were unable to invest in what they felt was necessary, and distorted investment priorities. British colonialism and its stronghold on the people of Ghana inspired Nkrumah and the nationalist movement. In addition to this, the Russian Revolution and the USSR also influenced Nkrumah and his views, as not only was the USSR nationally diverse, but was a “relatively backwards country” transformed into a “giant industrial power” (Tunteng 234). Nkrumah and the nationalist movement in Ghana was a result of the political climate during the start of the Cold War era, and the ideas and changes made under Nkrumah would influence the future of Ghana and Africa.

Nkrumah sought to improve the lives of Ghanaians, which he did by expanding and improving infrastructure across the state. This was a necessary action by Nkrumah, as much of the infrastructure in Ghana, especially the poor regions to the north, was extremely lacking. By making improvements to education, health care, transport, and energy, Nkrumah “started to create the economic infrastructure that Ghana needed if it were to become an efficient exporter of primary goods” (Ray 13). The changes of infrastructure were apparent within the nation, especially improvements to health care, which increased the life expectancy “from 40 years in 1960 to 55.2 in 1984” (Ray 4).  As beneficial as these changes were to Ghanaian society, the origins of these changes held dangerous consequences.

Much of Ghana’s development under Nkrumah was due to a need to “catch up” with the West, as Ghana had, like other colonial nations, been “deprived” of the “resources to pursue Western Style economic development” (Mishra 74). Nkrumah’s actions were a result of his mimetic desire to obtain the wealth and prosperity for Ghana like those in the west, such as the United States. However, British interference and colonialism had drained Ghana of many of its resources, making it difficult for Ghana to integrate into the world market. The economy of Ghana was unable to keep up with the costs of all the improvement to infrastructure, and Nkrumah sought loans from Western nations in order to try and remedy their economic problems. Mimetic desire led in part to Nkrumah’s fall, but despite this he continued to inspire and many Ghanaians and Africans.

Nkrumah introduced many young Ghanaians to socialist ideology, which would influence later revolutions such as the December 31^st Revolution in 1981. This same socialist ideology would spread throughout Africa, influencing other colonies to seek independence for themselves. Nkrumah’s ideologies manifest through the belief which has been coined Nkrumaism: “Every vestige of colonialism must be wiped away from every corner of Africa. That is the policy for Africa” (James 162). Furthermore, Nkrumah wanted the people of Ghana to undergo “a political and mental revolution at the same time,” changing not only the political institutions of Ghana, but also changing the minds and ideologies of the Ghanaian people (Tunteng 233). Nkrumah’s lasting impact on Ghana through the way that “he created the political symbols and political psychology of patriotism and sovereignty in Ghana against which all others are still measured, and which to the left are still the touchstone of truth” (Ray 13). Nkrumah changed African ideology and spearheaded the African independence movement.

Lor Richardson

Works Cited

James, C. L. R. Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution. Allison & Busby, 1982.

Mishra, Pankaj. Age of Anger: a history of the present. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.

Ray, Donald. Ghana: Politics, Economics, and Society. Francis Pinter, 1986.

Tunteng, P. “Kwame Nkrumah and the African Revolution.” Civilisations, vol. 23/24, no. 3/4, 1973/1974, pp. 233-247., doi: 130.113.69.47.

Other Relevant Readings

Davidson, Basil. Black Star: a view of the life and times of Kwame Nkrumah. Westview Press, 1989.

Howe, Russell Warren. “Did Nkrumah Favour Pan-Africanism?” Transition, no. 27, 1966, pp. 13–15., doi:10.2307/2934195.

Gupta, Anirudh. “Kwame Nkrumah: A Reassessment.” International Study, vol. 12, no. 2, January 1973, pp. 207-221. doi:10.1177/002088177301200203.

Smertin, Yuri. Kwame Nkrumah. International Publishers, 1987.

Fyodor Dostoevsky

November 11, 1821- February 9, 1881

Fyodor Dostoyevsky was a brilliant writer and philosopher who expanded many theories which tremendously affected Russian society. He was born in Moscow, Russia, but would later move to Saint Petersburg in 1837. The time period where he was starting to become famous was near the end of the Age of the Enlightenment and in the middle of the Industrial Revolution. Alexander I, who was Emperor of Russia, passed away, as Nicholas I was next in line, while the army officers failed to abolish serfdom and have constitutionalism. ( A timeline of Russia,) Russia were involved in many wars/battles during Fyodor’s lifetime including: their second war against Persia over Georgia, defeated Egypt at the battle of Navarino, along with Britain and France, attacked/defeated the Ottomans, and helped Austria defeat a nationalist revolt in Hungary.( A timeline of Russia,) The Russian troops also defeated the Romanian revolution, Russia, and the Ottoman empire start the Crimean war, and lastly, Russia ending up defeating the Ottomans once again. (A timeline of Russia,) This all happened in a span from 1826-1878. Other important things happening in this time period were: Russia signing treaties of alliance with Austria and Prussia in 1833 and Alexander II eventually abolishing serfdom, and allowing freedom to 20 million serfs, and land for some of them as well in 1861. Fyodor was living in the era of the landowners and the serfs, multiple years before communism, as Russia unconstrained the serfs severely in 1861.(A timeline of Russia,)

The themes in Fyodor’s four novels, Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Possessed, and The Brothers Karamazov, reflected what was happening in Russian society. Themes such as nihilism, existentialism, alienation, a human suffering from humour, and psychology. In Notes from the Underground, Dostoyevsky was talking about the issue of undereducated workers and peasants having such limited power and freedom during his time in jail in Siberia. He said that theorists of the 1860’s were to used to European culture, and were too disconnected from their Russian values. He says that we need to go back to follow the primary Russian values such as personal responsibility, brotherly love, family, and religion. In the book, money was also seen as a symbol of power. (“Notes from Underground.” SparkNotes, SparkNotes,) Due to the Underground Man being poor, he could never be social or equal to others throughout the novel. He wasn’t seen as a peasant, but is still ashamed as he still borrows money on a daily basis from anyone he can.(“Notes from Underground.” SparkNotes, SparkNotes,) 

In Crime and Punishment, The Possessed, and the Brothers Karamazov, Fyodor explains in his book the sudden change from being a socialist to a nihilist, right after he got out of jail in Siberia. A nihilist is a person who believes that life is meaningless and doesn’t believe in any religion. During the time Fyodor was alive, more and more people believed in nihilism, as was reflected in Crime and Punishment. (“Crime and Punishment.” SparkNotes, SparkNotes,) He uses the main character Raskolnikov as a socialist, which was the “old Dostoevsky” and used another character named Lebeziatnikov as a nihilist, who wanted to use “new philosophies”. He also talked about how indigent most of the characters in the book, including the main character’s family, the Raskolnikov’s, as he approached his sister about marrying a man just because of his wealth. Dostoyevsky’s description of poverty authorizes him to talk about social issues to make situations, to which the only way to stay alive is through self-sacrifice.(“Crime and Punishment.” SparkNotes, SparkNotes,)   

Fyodor had a huge impact on Russian society, scholars, and philosophers, who came after he had died. He has been acknowledged all over the world as one of the greatest writers and philosophers for multiple years now. His last book, The Brothers Karamazov, was said to be the masterpiece of Western literature. He also influenced Friedrich Nietzsche and Leo Tolstoy. The most crucial years of Dostoevsky’s life were also the most active, as Russian history was changing so much. He became involved in political interests of controversial topics. Fyodor was lastly influenced by radical ideas entering Russia from the West. (“The Brothers Karamazov.” Fyodor Dostoevsky Biography, )

Tobi Osisanya

Works Cited: Bibliography

“Diagnosing Literary Genius.” Google Books,

Roberts, Peter. “EDUCATION AND THE LIMITS OF REASON: READING DOSTOEVSKY.” Educational Theory, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 15 Apr. 2012,

“Handbook of Social Capital.” Google Books,

“Dostoevsky’s Polyphonic Talent.” Google Books, “Introduction: Faith-Based Organisations and Urban Social Issues.” Introduction: Faith-Based Organisations and Urban Social IssuesUrban Studies – Justin Beaumont, 2008,

Other Relevant Readings

A timeline of Russia

“Existentialism.” AllAboutPhilosophy.org,

Rbth. “All you ever wanted to know about Dostoevsky.” Russia Beyond, 11 Nov. 2013,

Morson, Gary Saul. “Fyodor Dostoyevsky.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 27 Apr. 2017,

Benito Mussolini

July 29^th, 1883 – April 28^th, 1945

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Predappio Italy, his father was a blacksmith and a socialist journalist, and his mother was a primary school teacher. Mussolini received a formidable education and was able to graduate with a teaching diploma. He read the philosophical works of political thinkers such as Fredrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx¹, where he most likely formed his own political opinions. Mussolini was able to become politically active at a young age, where he would call for strikes and violence against the ruling elites¹. In March 1919, Mussolini was able to form the Fascist Party of Italy, they were able to gain much support from unemployed war veterans. Benito Mussolini was able to form these veterans into armed squads known as the black shirts, who were notorious for terrorizing their political opponents². Mussolini was able to successfully work his way up to the position of Prime Minister, which was offered by King Emmanuel III in 1922¹. He slowly dismantled the democratic systems within Italy, until eventually he had created his own dictatorship with himself the sole individual in power¹. By the time he was 42, he was already the fascist dictator of Italy, his rule even being praised by western leaders of the time such as Winston Churchill, who believed that a return to order was needed¹. Mussolini grew increasingly ambitious, and hungered for even more power. In 1935, he launched a campaign against Ethiopia to further Italy’s colonial holdings, they were successful in their invasion, but Mussolini’s aggressive actions caused him to be denounced by much of the western world. Due to Italy’s reputation after the invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini then decided to side with Hitler during World War II. Not long after, in 1945 Mussolini was abandoned with just a handful of men, which lead to his capture and subsequent execution. The early 20^th century was a trying time for Italy, they were also a country that got hit heavily by the great depression, so there were many citizens who were looking for answers, and were upset with their government because they felt like they had failed them². This anger and discontent created the perfect climate for Benito Mussolini to rise. He was a strong, charismatic figure who was able to rally others into violent opposition of the Italian government. What Mussolini was able to do In Italy became a common trend across Europe, soon Germany followed with Adolf Hitler, along with Spain, who turned to a fascist leader Francisco Franco. The impact that Mussolini had can still be felt to this day, not only did he pave the way for fascist dictators like Hitler and Franco to rise, but his extreme nationalism and aggressive foreign policy contributed to World War II, one of the most destructive and bloodiest world conflicts in the world’s history¹. Mussolini’s influence has reached beyond his own years however, as every July 29^th, due to said date being Mussolini’s birthday, thousands of tourists from around the world, typically those who are involved in far right-wing circles, travel to Predappio to celebrate the life of Mussolini⁴. It is a major source of income for the city of Predappio, many shops sell souvenirs, along with t-shirts that portray Mussolini’s likeness on t-shirts⁴. Though the consensus is that Mussolini is dead, and along with him died fascism, it is clear to see that his influence still reaches people nearly 80 years later, as many flock to his birthplace to celebrate him, and to praise what he did throughout his life⁴.

Spencer Sullivan

Bibliography

Lorenzini, Pietro. “Benito Mussolini.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 2017.

“History – Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945).” BBC. Accessed November 08, 2017. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml.

Richardson, Charles O. “The Rome Accords of January 1935 and the Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War.” The Historian 41, no. 1 (1978): 41-58. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1978.tb01227.x.

Paradiso, Max. “The Polite Cult of Mussolini.” New Statesman 146, no. 5382, 13-14.

Gilbert, Martin. “The Rise of Fascism in Europe in the twentieth century: lessons for today .” India International Centre Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2002): 31-38.

Other Relevant Reading

Bruckner, Tim A., Andrew Noymer, and Ralph A. Catalano. “Life Expectancy during the Great Depression in Eleven European Countries.” Population and Development Review 39, no. 1 (2013): 57-74. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00573.x.

Nelis, Jan. “Constructing Fascist Identity: Benito Mussolini and the Myth of Romanità.” Classical World 100, no. 4 (2007): 391-415. doi:10.1353/clw.2007.0069.

Adam Mickiewicz

Dec 24, 1798 – Nov 26, 1855

Adam Mickiewicz was a Pole, born in 1798, on grounds taken over by the Russian Empire. He lived during the World War II, and the Nazi Occupation. This was a time when Poland was fighting for their independance. Poland’s existence, was under a lot of pressure. Adam Mickiewicz took the events of World War II, and the effect that the events had on humanity, and he turned it into beautiful poetry.

Adam Mickiewicz was a Polish poet, who practically invented romanticism in Poland, and in Europe. Mickiewicz fought for Poland’s independence. He believed in patriotism, and religion above all other. Adam Mickiewicz was able to bring poetry into life. He understood humanity, and nature. He gave Poland hope during the nazi occupation. Roman Koropeckyj states, “His name served as a point of reference whenever the survival of the polish nation was at stake, and whenever ideas about its fate needed legitimation” (Koropeckyj, Preface, ix) Poland’s independence, and patriotism was highly influenced by Adam Mickiewicz. He inspired many Poles to fight, and to never give up on their country.

His two most finest poems are, Dziady, and Pan Tadeusz. Pan Tadeusz has become the national epic poem of Poland. In his poems he intertwines, horror, and death with nationality, and patriotism. His poems are clear, and pure. Adam Mickiewicz was greatly inspired by Byron. Adam Mickiewicz was not afraid to say what he thinks, and feels. His poem, Dziady was banned because, it made the russians uncomfortable due to the poems anti-russian remarks. His poems embrace religion, nationalism, patriotism, and humanity. His poems taught the world how to love, and respect a country. He inspired people to do everything, and anything for their heritage, and country.

Adam Mickiewicz earned his historical significance by being a great poet, as well as being a great enforcer of nationalism. He was interested in politics, and always fought for the good of the people. His fight for Poland’s independence, and his love for his country is what inspired many others. His poems touched the hearts, and lives of people universally. His spirit, and emotions influenced, and changed patriotism all around the world. His thoughts, ideas, and words; his poems, embraced all humanity. Manfred states, “ Mickiewicz always united the Polish cause with that of the whole of humanity and never lowered his ideals to the level of narrow nationalism” (Manfred, 355). Thus, his poems were universal. He rejected separatism, and embraced unionization. Mickiewicz did not discriminate, he believed all people deserve rights, and freedom. He stood up for humanity. Mickiewicz understood social, and political problems nationwide. While fighting for independence, he was also fighting for liberation.

 

The name Mickiewicz has become a well known and well respected name. Adam Mickiewicz has caught the attention of many other historical figures. For instance, M azzini Giuseppe described Mickiewicz as, “more than a poet: a prophet” (Nagorski, p.99). Today, Poland thanks Adam Mickiewicz for fighting for Poland, and for inspiring others to fight. Kridl Manfred states, “He is the main spiritual source of modern Polish patriotism…” (Manfred, 359) His writings, have made Poland’s patriotism, and religion into what it is today. On the global level, Adam Mickiewicz transformed Romanticism and made it his own. He was a genius who brought poetry to life. His works are raw, beautiful, and relatable.

Agnieszka Prymicz

 

Works Cited

Blum, George P. “Nazism.” Salem Press Encyclopedia (2017): Research Starters , (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=1b322f79-493 b-4f45-9f71-caf282391ae1%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcG U9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=96397535&db=ers

Cochran, Peter. “Roman Koropeckyj. Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic.” Pushkin Review 11 (2008): 193+. Literature Resource Center (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster& v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA259467591&asid=57a63f42b6a65c30939f362d72e68946 .

Kridl, Manfred. “Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855).” American Slavic and East European Review 7, no. 4 (1948): 340-60. (accessed November 9, 2017).

Click to access 2491889.pdf

Nagórski, Zygmunt. “The Adam Mickiewicz Year.” The Polish Review 1, no. 1 (1956): 99-107. (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://www.jstor.org/stable/25776032 .

Trencsenyi, B., Kopecek, M. “National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements.” Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe (2007):1770–1945,
(accessed November 9, 2017).

http://books.openedition.org/ceup/2229

Koropeckyj, Robert. “Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic” Cornell University Press (2008). (accessed November 9, 2017).

https://quod-lib-umich-edu.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;idno=heb32418#

Other relevant reading(s):

Zakrzewski, Christopher A. “Pan Tadeusz.” Sarmatian Review 35, no. 3 (2015): 1939+. Academic OneFile (accessed November 10, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster &v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA428998858&sid=ebsco&asid=86482ef42efa557512312e609442f d1b .

Salvador Allende

June 26, 1908 – September 11, 1973

Salvador Allende was the 56th president of Chile. What differs him from other presidents, however, would be that he was the first democratically elected president with a socialist and openly self-proclaimed marxist agenda. His presidential term was between 1970 to 1973, the Cold War era.

To understand his significance, it would probably be key to understand the political and social situation of Chile during his time in politics. The political structure in Chile is similar to the one in the traditional western model, with a left, right and centre spectrum (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). There were numerous presidents before Allende’s election, all offering different solutions to the different problems the Chilean public faced, such as economic issues like housing and inflation that was still prevalent during Allende’s campaign (Drobny, 1983). When looking at the limited available Chilean voter data, Allende had high popularity amongst low income workers, and those with both lower and higher educational status, but not those in the middle (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Looking at this information alone, it is very easy to make the assumption that Allende’s support and victory came from a class based one. Allende represented something different for Chile than the more western based ideologies. Socialist and communistic ideas from figures like Fidel Castro were prominent in Latin America (Power, 2008). Their influence caused guerrilla warfare in many places in Latin America, looking for change and an uprising, except for Chile, which heavily stayed towards its electoral voting process as a method for change (Power, 2008). Allende and his marxist ideologies were alluring to the struggling classes and scholars of Chile demanding change and not receiving it from the western model.

 

It is important to note that Allende’s campaign and election was a part of the Cold war era Latin America’s front, with the Soviet Union supporting Allende, and the United States opposed to him. The U.S invested millions into an anti-Allende campaign (Power, 2008), while the Soviets funded Allende’s candidacy, marking this as a clear Cold War confrontation between socialist and western ideals (Kedar, 2015). Allende’s presidency was almost a clear cut example of how the Cold War is usually described: Allende was a socialist, which immediately made him an enemy of the United states and allies with the Soviet Union, which resulted in a large political battleground to be set. The United States demonized socialism and Allende himself throughout his campaign through radio, newspaper and other outlets (Power, 2008). When Allende did obtain presidency, United States President Nixon stated to his advisors to ‘Make the (Chilean) Economy Scream’ to combat Allende’s government (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Inflation rose more in Chile and people either blamed the chilean government, or the governments opposition on the situation (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Despite the Soviet Unions economic aid and support towards Allende’s government (Power, 2008), Allende was cornered in a CIA and upper class influenced coup d’etat, where he proceeded to kill himself. This Cold War conflict reinforces the idea of the modern ‘age of aggression.’ Conflict between western ideologies and socialist beliefs creating angry men and conflict between people.

Gurwinder Sidhu

Works Cited:

Drobny, Andres. “THE INFLUENCE OF MINIMUM WAGE RATES ON THE LEVEL AND DISTRIBUTION OF REAL WAGES IN CHILE, 1960-1972.” Bulletin Of Latin American Research 2, no. 2 (April 1983): 17-38. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

KEDAR, CLAUDIA. 2015. “Salvador Allende and the International Monetary Fund, 1970– 1973: The Depoliticisation and Technocratisation of Cold War Relations.” Journal Of Latin American Studies 47, no. 4: 717-747. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

NAVIA, PATRICIO, and RODRIGO OSORIO. 2017. “‘Make the Economy Scream’? Economic, Ideological and Social Determinants of Support for Salvador Allende in Chile, 1970–3.” Journal Of Latin American Studies 49, no. 4: 771-797. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost.

Power, Margaret. 2008. “The Engendering of Anticommunism and Fear in Chile’s 1964 Presidential Election.” Diplomatic History 32, no. 5: 931-953. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

Other Relevant Reading

Bray, Marjorie Woodford. 2013. “The Making of Chile: With Poems and Guns: A Personal Recollection.” Latin American Perspectives 40, no. 1: 187-200. America: History & Life, EBSCOhost.

Gustave Flaubert

Gustave Flaubert was a French novelist. He was born and died in Rouen, France, on the 12^th of December 1821 and the 8^th of May 1880, respectively.  He is most widely known for his novel Madame Bovary, which was published in 1857. After completing his secondary studies at a Lycée in Rouen, he studied law in Paris, but was a despondent student and disliked the city. He gave up law in 1846. (brown 2006) Flaubert is most commonly recognized as a pioneer of the literary movement of Realism. Realism is generally more concerned with the everyday and commonplace aspects of life, and defined predominantly by the precision and care with which the work is constructed. This is in contrast to the preceding era of Victorian literature (which was usually darker and concerned with the grittier aspects of life, and in which the forces of nature contributed greatly to the plot.) Although he was a great realist, there are also prominent aspects of romanticism in his work. As a writer, Flaubert was deeply influenced by the Marquis de Sade, which may seem surprising simply based on the difference in the subjects of their novels. However, over the course of his life, Flaubert returned to de Sade many times – as he was so intrigued by de Sade’s ability to depict physical agony in an artful way that these themes come to the surface in several of Flaubert’s works (for example, Emma’s suicide by arsenic poisoning in Madame Bovary.) (Wall 2007) Flaubert’s style of prose has been described by Vladimir Nobokov as “[a] kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author’s private sentiments […] the legacy of his work habits can best be described […] as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing.” (Nobokov 1980) This kind of precise, slow, self-reflective writing Flaubert is known for is perhaps a response to the criticism his first version of his novel The Temptation of Saint Anthony (1849) received. The Temptation of Saint Anthony is a distinctly fantastical novel, its is Flaubert’s attempt to create a Faust in French, and because it did not initially receive any praise, Flaubert may have changed his writing to focus on more everyday subjects in response to this. (Leal 1990) His writing style did no come naturally to him, as he describes in some of his personal correspondence, but instead was painstakingly constructed. (Flaubert 1980) His most famous and influential novel, Madame Bovary was quite shocking when it was first published, as it depicts a middle-class (bourgeoisie) French woman as breaking the moulds of what was expected of a wife at the time, and giving herself over to passion and foolishness. (Flaubert 2004) This novel is a rather feminist interpretation of the 19^th century woman, although it is not at all glowing. Flaubert recognizes the cage of domesticity that many women were confined to, and a woman’s inability to flee her unsatisfying life without the help of a man. (Flaubert 2004) Flaubert’s construction of a new way of writing a novel influenced many authors who came after him, very notably Franz Kafka. Kafka was deeply influenced by Flaubert’s method of introspective and precise writing, so much so that their attitudes towards the connection between literature and the self were very similar. Kafka was so touched by Flaubert’s attitude towards the painstaking creative process that both writers had a similar method of creating. (Bernheimer 1982) Because of his marrying of realism and romanticism many writers influenced by either movement can trace their influence to Flaubert and his style. Flaubert’s creation of what could be called the modern novel has influenced many writers, as his perfectionist style of realist narration was so captivating. His method of structuring his writing was so influential that many 21^st century readers are so familiar with his influence that it is hard to notice. (Wood, 2009) In terms of literary style, narration, and prose, there was most definitely a time before Flaubert and a time after him.

Astrid Moore

Works Cited

Bernheimer, Charles. Flaubert and Kafka: Studies in Psychopoetic Structure. Yale University Press, 1982.

Brown, Frederick. Flaubert: A Biography. Little Brown, 2006.

Flaubert, Gustave. The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880. Edited by Francis Steegmuller. Harvard University Press, 1980.

Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Leal, R.B. “The Unity of Flaubert’s ‘Tentation de saint Antoine (1874)’”. The Modern Language Review, 85(2). 1990.

Nobokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Literature, Volume 1. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.

Wall, Geoffrey. Thinking with Demons: Flaubert and de Sade. The Cambridge Quarterly, 36(2). Oxford University Press, 2007.

Wood, James. How Fiction Works. Vintage Books, 2009.

Other Relevant Reading

Burton, Richard D.E. The death of politics: the significance of Dambreuse’s funeral in ‘L’Education sentimentale’. French Studies, 50(2). The Society for French Studies, 1996.

De Baisi, Pierre-Marc. Gustave Flaubert : Une Manière Spéciale De Vivre. Paris: B. Grasset, 2009.

Mikhail Bakunin

Background 

Mikhail Aleksandrovich Bakunin was born on May 30th, 1814 in Premukhino, Russia and died in Bern, Switzerland on July 1st, 1876 (Smolensky, 2016). Bakunin’s father was a doctor of philosophy who believed deeply in the values of Enlightenment intellectuals and found a true interest in the ideas of Rousseau, specifically (Smolensky, 2016). This said, Bakunin grew, through the teachings of his father, to have similar beliefs (Smolensky, 2016). Bakunin placed more emphasis on the importance of reason than of faith, while also believing in the importance of “…individual consent to radical lengths.” (Smolensky, 2016). Values such as these give reasoning as to why and how he became an “… avowed atheist, materialist, and anarchist activist” (Knowles, 2002).

As a teenager, Mikhail Bakunin was sent to an artillery school in St. Petersburg and, eventually, “…posted to a military unit on the Polish frontier.” (Smolensky, 2016). Smolensky (2016) further notes that “the military life was not for Bakunin, and in 1835, he bolted from his unit, narrowly avoiding arrest and certain disgrace for desertion.” After such an experience avoiding authority, Bakunin had grown to despise it (Smolensky, 2016). This distaste for authority, along with the meeting and studying of other German philosophers, such as Fichte, Herzen, Hegel, and Belinsky, had propelled him into the career of anarchism he is most famously known for (Smolensky, 2016).

Historical Significance

As a devoted anarchist, Mikhail Bakunin had contributed the vast majority of his life and focus on the emancipation of humanity from all authority (Knowles, 2002). Said best by Smolensky (2016):

“For Bakunin, the very essence of humanity lay in thought and rebellion. Thought, or science, allowed human beings to understand the world around them in a way that other animals could never approach. Rebellion, or freedom, allowed human beings to exercise thought rather than blindly follow external authorities. To accept religious or political authority was, for Bakunin, to be less than fully human. The full development of humanity, in turn, demanded thoroughgoing social revolution, which would erase all manner of legal tyranny, class domination, and privilege, opening the way for true community.”

In 1848, Bakunin began his revolutionary career fighting alongside other working-class revolutionaries throughout European cities such as Paris (Smolensky, 2016). During this year, he also took part in revolutions in Germany and Poland and was seen at the Slav Congress in Prague (Smolensky, 2016). In 1849, Mikhail Bakunin took part in the insurrection in Dresden, Germany, where he was eventually arrested and held in a German prison until 1851, when he was sent to a prison in Russia (Smolensky, 2016). After an additional six years in the Russian prison, Bakunin was released and sent to Siberia (Smolensky, 2016). However, in 1861, Bakunin escaped Siberia and traveled to London. (Smolensky, 2016). In 1863, he took part in the Polish insurrection, reaching as far as Sweden, and the following year he traveled to Italy, where he successfully established a “…network of secret revolutionary societies across Europe.” (Smolensky, 2016). As Smolensky (2016) further states, “In 1868, Bakunin relocated to Geneva, where he joined the First International, a federation of various working-class parties for world socialism.” However, Bakunin and his followers were later removed from the First International due to conflict with Karl Marx, who sought out his removal (Smolensky, 2016).

The prolonged feud between Karl Marx and Mikhail Bakunin is a very recurrent topic when conducting research and discussing the histories of both individuals. However, as Gouldner (1982) states,  “This climactic conflict was largely fought within the organizational framework of the International Workingman’s Association (IWA), later known as the First International.” (p. 853). Although both were revolutionists who fought against bourgeois individualism, Marx believed that only the working-class individuals should be eligible for membership in the First International, excluding those who fell under different categories such as intellectuals and students (Gouldner, 1982, p.855-856). Evidently, Bakunin was an intellectual himself, creating tension between himself and Marx upon his membership (Gouldner, 1982, p. 856). However, as explained by Gouldner (1982):

“What made Marx so implacably opposed to him, however, was not simply that Bakunin was his intellectual competitor for revolutionary leader- ship in the IWA, but that Bakunin’s doctrine provided a theoretical ground- ing for the very anti-intellectual exclusionary policies so prevalent among the militant artisans.” (p. 856).

Anarchists are constantly influenced by the actions and behaviors displayed by Mikhail Bakunin in the 19th century (Goodwin, 2007). Goodwin (2007) states that anarchist propaganda in 20th century Soviet Russia “… saw its boldest expression in the anarchists’ defence of their most legendary representative, Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76).” (p. 533). Through his “…passionate rhetoric against authoritarianism…” and “… acts of revolutionary valor…” Bakunin had won the hearts of young working-class anarchists and revolutionists during both his own time and thereafter (Goodwin, 2007, p.534).

Breann McKinney

References

Goodwin, J. F. (2007). Russian anarchism and the Bolshevization of Bakunin in the early Soviet period. Kritika: Explorations in Russian & Eurasian History, 8(3), 533-560. Retrieved from: https://kritika.georgetown.edu/

Gouldner, A. W. (1982). Marx’s last battle: Bakunin and the First International. Theory and Society, 11(6), 853-884. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org

Knowles, R. (2002). “Human light”: The mystical religion of Mikhail Bakunin. The European Legacy, 7(1), 7-24. doi: 10.1080/10848770120114547

Smolensky, I. (2016). Mikhail Bakunin. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: https://www.salempress.com/ 

Jeremy Bentham

February 15^th, 1748 – June 6^th, 1832

Jeremy Bentham made many significant historical contributions throughout his life, influencing politics, and women’s suffrage. Through the large progressions surrounding his time Bentham draws influence from all different aspect of history. For example, his work within law and political reforms is still influential today. Bentham believed in democracy, specifically representative democracy, focusing his efforts on restricting the power of the “sinister interests” of people in power throughout Bentham’s lifetime. More specifically Bentham’s reforms included the reformation of The Substantive Law, Codification of the Law, and The Doctrine of Judicial Precedent. The reformation continues to show influence in our own judicial systems today, Bentham based this reform on the relation of law and equality. Substantive laws seek to enforce how citizens should behave and Bentham believed that in order for this to enacted there must be equality within the law. Bethan strongly believed in a system of law primarily based on utility (Utilitarianism), and if every person enacted this principle Europe would benefit significantly. He aimed for equality and believed in the fair possession of goods and property. Utility becomes Bentham’s main focus for the duration of his career, and he seeks to apply this to everyday politics and everyday life. For instance, mentioned in “In Bentham’s view, the desire for all pleasure and the aversion to pain lie at the root of all human action,” Bentham attempted to balance pain verse pleasure looking to understand that pain is the evil and pleasure is the good. Bentham’s ideals surrounding Utility focused on the fact the we might always be successful but we need the correct and crucial information to make the correct decision. Through the development of Bentham’s ideologies, he believed that if each individual acted in this way it would better humanity as a whole While Jeremy Bentham progressed his thoughts towards utility, the unequal political and societal systems that embraced pleasure influenced his thoughts greatly. This allowed Bentham to consider the consequences to our actions which becomes a major influence in the modern world. The general good of all people should be reflected in ones’ actions, especially politicians, and Bentham even goes as far to say, “no legislation can deny his proper objective- the promotion of the happiness of the members of the community subjected to him.” Thus, Bentham’s ideals go on to influence modern politics, as mentioned Bentham’s ideas surround the general good are the main focus of political leaders today.

Much like Bentham’s contributions to politics and his theory of Utility Bentham played an important role in the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Throughout Bentham’s career he made significant comments surrounding women’s suffrage and their value in society. Bentham made it clear that he saw the value in women and especially in their abilities within society, Bentham stated, “of the two sexes of which the species is composed how comes all natural right to political benefits to be combined to one?” Bentham seemed to be confused with the balance of political, he recognized the value in women and wondered if both sexes equal why should all power be subjected to one sex? Bentham seemed to express that all men and women were equal, later stating when he was asked “Why admit women to the right of suffrage?” he replied with “why exclude them?” Through this quote Benham makes his opinion clear regarding women and their right to suffrage. Although Bentham did not contribute to any actual political reform towards Women suffrage, his ability to recognize the injustices influenced the shift in women’s eventual rights. Once again, his ability to acknowledge the mistreatment and absurdity in the suppression of women further and influenced the Women’s suffrage that effects all women’s lives throughout the modern world.

Throughout Jeremey Bentham’s life there were many significant influences that helped to influence his theories and ideologies. For example, Bentham was largely influenced by John Locke and David Hume, he often commented on their own works and applied their knowledge to his own. Bentham was largely influenced by his families practice of law, and this might have been where avocation for political reform began. His family was extremely religious and his mother focused greatly on superstition, which may have influenced his idea surrounding the consequences of our actions and understanding the effects of your choices on all members of society. Debatably one of the most influential influences was the massive social and economic change taking place throughout Bentham’s life. Such as, the industrial revolution, which may have also had an influence in his ideals surround consequences for your actions. For example, what would be the consequences of the industrial revolution, and a new the new way of life stemming through his lifetime?

Abigail Morrison

Work Cited

Frederick N. Judson. “A Modern View of the Law Reforms of Jeremy Bentham.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan. 1910), pp. 41-54 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1110951

Bentham, Jeremy, Utilitarianism Progressive Publishing Company, 1890

https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eikSAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=jeremy+bentham+utilitarianism&ots=A5pbvKmJRn&sig=JTe-tiYNl5fdL-4EplAUcVe6ZrA#v=onepage&q=jeremy%20bentham%20utilitarianism&f=false

Schofield, Phillip. Bentham: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum International Company Inc., 2009

Chernock, Arianne, Men and the Making of the Modern British Feminism California: Stanford University Press, 2009. https://books.google.ca/books?id=WOPe32ADV_AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Crimmins, James E. Secular Utilitarianism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Atkinson, Milner Charles. Jeremy Bentham: His Life and Work. London: Methuen and Company, 1905.

 

Richard Wagner

May 22, 1813 – Feb 13, 1883

Wagner was born in Leipzig, Germany to Carl Friedrich Wagner and Johanna Rosine. His father died nine months after his birth and his mother married his father’s friend, Ludwig Geyer, who was an actor and playwright. The interests of his stepfather were also found in Wagner who grew to become a theatre director as well as a composer, conductor and a polemicist. Wagner’s works in the theatres were influenced by other well-known artists and composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven and William Shakespeare. Wagner is known today for his musical contributions and controversial anti-Semitic works. Wagner’s contributions extend into the performing arts as well as the thoughts of intellectuals. Weber (2006, 508) notes that during Wagner’s early life, Leipzig had strict notions of music imposed upon it by the Church. The population was ready for a change in its musical capacities and Wagner delivered with his works and compositions. Wagner introduced leitmotifs, a characteristic sound for a person, object or event. Kregor (2017, 547) details Wagner’s leitmotifs and how they are still used today in movies and television because the masses still find them entertaining. Wagner used tonal centres, chromaticism, various sounds of quantity and quality to produce a new quality of music. Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde that premiered on June 10, 1865, was a musical masterpiece in its various combinations of sound, but is as Classen (2013, 338) suggests, a work that romanticizes the material and greedy aspects of human nature. Wagner would use dream sequences in his works as Lippman (1990, 54-56) describes, in ways that were fairly insightful into what dreams really were before any formal investigation into the matter. Wagner was more than an artist, he was an influential thinker, a polemicist who had controversial ideas and a magnetic character that allowed his ideas to spread. Wagner still has followers known as Wagnerians or Wagnerites who are devoted to him and his works. Wagner’s essay on Jewish music is as Loeffler (2009, 3) describes, reflective of the stereotypes during his time. Hall (2017, 54-60) details how Adolf Hitler had gained a deep interest in Wagner’s works, specifically the anti-Semitic ones. Wagner had indirectly influenced the Nazis and as such, a select few pieces of his works were being used as propaganda and his music was played during their events. Emslie (2012, 17-25) details how Wagner’s works in music and literature helped some to define what it meant to be German. Wagner was creating a cultural identity with his works, and as a result, he helped to define clear lines between Germans and Non-Germans for those who had a deep sense of nationalism. These dividing sentiments in culture contributed to the feeling of ressentiment between the Germans and Non-Germans, only to explode into a conflict such as the Holocaust during World War II. Wagner was an innovative composer and thinker whose influence was far reaching in areas involving the arts and intellectual thought. He has had an impact on the minds of many and has had a hand in shaping history as a result.

Shariful Sakib

Works Cited

Classen, Albrecht. 2013. “Visuality and Materiality in the Story of Tristan and Isolde ed. by Jutta Eming, Ann Marie Rasmussen, and Kathryn Starkey (Review).” The Comparatist 37 (1): 338–41. doi:10.1353/com.2013.0003.

Emslie, Barry. 2012. “Being German: Richard Wagner and Thomas Mann.” Being German: Richard Wagner and Thomas Mann. 6 (2): 17–32.

Hall, David Ian. 2017. “Wagner, Hitler, and Germany’s Rebirth after the First World War.” War in History 24 (2): 154–75. doi:10.1177/0968344515608664.

Loeffler, James. 2009. “Richard Wagners “Jewish Music”: Antisemitism and Aesthetics in Modern Jewish Culture.” Jewish Social Studies 15 (2): 2–36. doi:10.2979/jss.2009.15.2.2.

Kregor, Jonathan. 2017. “Understanding the Leitmotif: From Wagner to Hollywood Film Music.” Understanding the Leitmotif: From Wagner to Hollywood Film Music 73 (3): 547.

Lippman, Edward A. 1990. “Wagners Conception of the Dream.” Journal of Musicology 8 (1): 54–81. doi:10.1525/jm.1990.8.1.03a00030.

Weber, William. 2006. “Redefining the Status of Opera: London and Leipzig, 1800–1848.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 36 (3): 507–32. doi:10.1162/002219506774929764.