Jeremy Bentham

February 15^th, 1748 – June 6^th, 1832

Jeremy Bentham made many significant historical contributions throughout his life, influencing politics, and women’s suffrage. Through the large progressions surrounding his time Bentham draws influence from all different aspect of history. For example, his work within law and political reforms is still influential today. Bentham believed in democracy, specifically representative democracy, focusing his efforts on restricting the power of the “sinister interests” of people in power throughout Bentham’s lifetime. More specifically Bentham’s reforms included the reformation of The Substantive Law, Codification of the Law, and The Doctrine of Judicial Precedent. The reformation continues to show influence in our own judicial systems today, Bentham based this reform on the relation of law and equality. Substantive laws seek to enforce how citizens should behave and Bentham believed that in order for this to enacted there must be equality within the law. Bethan strongly believed in a system of law primarily based on utility (Utilitarianism), and if every person enacted this principle Europe would benefit significantly. He aimed for equality and believed in the fair possession of goods and property. Utility becomes Bentham’s main focus for the duration of his career, and he seeks to apply this to everyday politics and everyday life. For instance, mentioned in “In Bentham’s view, the desire for all pleasure and the aversion to pain lie at the root of all human action,” Bentham attempted to balance pain verse pleasure looking to understand that pain is the evil and pleasure is the good. Bentham’s ideals surrounding Utility focused on the fact the we might always be successful but we need the correct and crucial information to make the correct decision. Through the development of Bentham’s ideologies, he believed that if each individual acted in this way it would better humanity as a whole While Jeremy Bentham progressed his thoughts towards utility, the unequal political and societal systems that embraced pleasure influenced his thoughts greatly. This allowed Bentham to consider the consequences to our actions which becomes a major influence in the modern world. The general good of all people should be reflected in ones’ actions, especially politicians, and Bentham even goes as far to say, “no legislation can deny his proper objective- the promotion of the happiness of the members of the community subjected to him.” Thus, Bentham’s ideals go on to influence modern politics, as mentioned Bentham’s ideas surround the general good are the main focus of political leaders today.

Much like Bentham’s contributions to politics and his theory of Utility Bentham played an important role in the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Throughout Bentham’s career he made significant comments surrounding women’s suffrage and their value in society. Bentham made it clear that he saw the value in women and especially in their abilities within society, Bentham stated, “of the two sexes of which the species is composed how comes all natural right to political benefits to be combined to one?” Bentham seemed to be confused with the balance of political, he recognized the value in women and wondered if both sexes equal why should all power be subjected to one sex? Bentham seemed to express that all men and women were equal, later stating when he was asked “Why admit women to the right of suffrage?” he replied with “why exclude them?” Through this quote Benham makes his opinion clear regarding women and their right to suffrage. Although Bentham did not contribute to any actual political reform towards Women suffrage, his ability to recognize the injustices influenced the shift in women’s eventual rights. Once again, his ability to acknowledge the mistreatment and absurdity in the suppression of women further and influenced the Women’s suffrage that effects all women’s lives throughout the modern world.

Throughout Jeremey Bentham’s life there were many significant influences that helped to influence his theories and ideologies. For example, Bentham was largely influenced by John Locke and David Hume, he often commented on their own works and applied their knowledge to his own. Bentham was largely influenced by his families practice of law, and this might have been where avocation for political reform began. His family was extremely religious and his mother focused greatly on superstition, which may have influenced his idea surrounding the consequences of our actions and understanding the effects of your choices on all members of society. Debatably one of the most influential influences was the massive social and economic change taking place throughout Bentham’s life. Such as, the industrial revolution, which may have also had an influence in his ideals surround consequences for your actions. For example, what would be the consequences of the industrial revolution, and a new the new way of life stemming through his lifetime?

Abigail Morrison

Work Cited

Frederick N. Judson. “A Modern View of the Law Reforms of Jeremy Bentham.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan. 1910), pp. 41-54 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1110951

Bentham, Jeremy, Utilitarianism Progressive Publishing Company, 1890

https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eikSAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=jeremy+bentham+utilitarianism&ots=A5pbvKmJRn&sig=JTe-tiYNl5fdL-4EplAUcVe6ZrA#v=onepage&q=jeremy%20bentham%20utilitarianism&f=false

Schofield, Phillip. Bentham: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum International Company Inc., 2009

Chernock, Arianne, Men and the Making of the Modern British Feminism California: Stanford University Press, 2009. https://books.google.ca/books?id=WOPe32ADV_AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Crimmins, James E. Secular Utilitarianism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Atkinson, Milner Charles. Jeremy Bentham: His Life and Work. London: Methuen and Company, 1905.

 

Giuseppe Mazzini

June 22, 1805 – March 10, 1872

Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa, to Giacomo and Maria Mazzini. Italy, at the time of his birth, was torn apart, ruled by no singular power, and in some areas, ruled by foreigners. Mazzini’s parents were both strong supporters of democracy (Hinkley, 2013), which quite evidently had an impact on his personal philosophy. The legal system in Italy was based heavily upon the Napoleonic code (Falchi, 2012). He became a Doctor of Law at the University of Genoa later in life, and following his completion of his education, became a proponent of democracy in a monarchist Italian state. It was this love of democracy that lead him to join the Secret Organization of Carbonari. He was subsequently arrested because of his views opposing the monarchy, but the government justified his arrest was because “the Government did not approve of young men of talent, fond of solitary walks, the subject of whose musings was unknown to them” (Hinkley, 2013). In was during his time in prison, and following time in exile that Mazzini developed much of his beliefs of Italian Unification, under a republican state through the concepts of nationalism and fraternity (Ridolfi, 2008). Arguably, the state Italy was in during his child had a strong impact on his opinions on unification, as the Italian states had been brought together by Napoleon, and then fell back into individual states afterwards. Mazzini then became one of the largest voices advocating for a democratic and unified Italy, and is credited by many for starting the Italian reformation (Ridolfi, 2008). He also defined nationalism in a new way, in stark contrast to the German definition of nationalism as cultural unity, as the Italian states shared no common culture. Instead, Mazzini defined nationalism as unifying together to complete a national mission, that was every person’s responsibility to accomplish (McMenamin, 1998). His philosophy is also credited with being used as a doctrine to help for the Indian Nationalist movement, with Bipin Chandra Pal, a popular politician of that period, citing Mazzini as in inspiration of his movement (Das Gupta, 1956).  This is a single example of how, although Mazzini’s writings are directed towards unifying Italy, they have a broad application with the ability to work to inspire and help many other movements the doctrines they need for a democratic republic. Mazzini’s views on democracy appealed to many women writers who believed there was inequality between the sexes, such as Margret Fuller, Emilie Ashurst and Jessie White Mario (Falchi, 2015). However, Mazzini’s philosophy is also criticized by some to have enabled totalitarianism in Europe, and advocated for the unification of all similar states, such as the Germans, the Slavs, the Baltics and so forth (McMenamin, 1998). The notion of totalitarian applications of Mazzini’s philosophies are still prevalent in modern contexts. Today, many nations are struggling with far-right nationalism, which bears a resemblance to his idea that free individuals are responsible to help achieve a national goal of progression. Mazzini has influenced a plethora of nationalist movements because the foundations of the nationalism rely on united countrymates. Giuseppe Mazzini was the man with the idea that brought Italy together, but those principles have a wide variety of applications.

Jake Woodcroft

 

Works Cited

Falchi, F. (2012). Democracy and the rights of women in the thinking of Giuseppe Mazzini. Modern Italy, 17(1), 15-30. doi:10.1080/13532944.2012.640084

Falchi, F. (2015). Beyond National Borders; ‘Italian’ Patriots United in the Name of Giuseppe Mazzini: Emilie Ashurst, Margaret Fuller and Jessie White Mario. Women’s History Review, 24(1), 23-36. doi:10.1080/09612025.2014.920672

Hinkley, E. (2013). Mazzini: the story of a great italian. S.l.: Wildside Press.

McMenamin, I. (1997). ‘Self-choosing’ and ‘right-acting’ in the nationalism of giuseppe Mazzini. History of European Ideas, 23(5-6), 221-234. doi:10.1016/s0191-6599(98)00003-5

Ridolfi, M. (2008). Visions of republicanism in the writings of Giuseppe Mazzini. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 13(4), 468-479. doi:10.1080/13545710802407493

Sarti, R. (1997). Mazzini: A life for the religion of politics. Westport, Conn: Praeger.

Other Relevant Reading

Ghisalberti, C. (1999). THE UNITARY STATE AND FEDERALISM IN ITALY. Parliaments, Estates & Representation, 19173-181.

Lago, E. D. (2012). “We Cherished the Same Hostility to Every Form of Tyranny”: Transatlantic Parallels and Contacts between William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini, 1846–1872. American Nineteenth Century History, 13(3), 293-319. doi:10.1080/14664658.2012.729663

Urbinati, N. (2012). Mazzini and the making of the republican ideology. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 17(2), 183-204. doi:10.1080/1354571x.2012.641412

Socialism

Socialism- A system in which the communities, associations and government receive all attributes of land, production and other properties; rather than being the property of the individual.

Socialism is an umbrella term for a ‘hard left’ way of thinking- like communism. There are many forms of socialism, which in term makes it a hard term to fully define. Scottish philosopher Robert Flint, further explains this by stating, “No definition of socialism at once true and precise has ever been given or ever will be given. For socialism is essentially indefinite, indeterminate. It is a tendency and movement towards an extreme.” ‘True Socialism’, is meant to have a fully democratic government, and many believe that this is why implementing socialism has shortcoming(s)

The origins of socialism can be traced back to Marx and Engels “Communist Manifesto”, in which they challenge capitalism, since Marx and Engels believed it was an unjust system that favored the bourgeoise. They both envisioned a new utopian society, in which property and production would stay within the state, to ensure that the system did not favor a certain class. This ideology would not come into any sort of effect until after Marx’s death; however, the “Communist Manifesto” would go on to inspire many revolutions, and challenge the western capitalist ideology.

The word “Socialism” was first used in 1837, and can be traced back from French socialisme (1832) or formed in English from ‘social’. Based on Google N-Grams, the word was most popularly used in the 1910’s, 1930’s and 1940’s. During which, World War One and World War Two occurred. As well as the ‘dirty thirties’, when the stock market crash and there was a global recession. They could have been looking for government reforms to help support citizens during this time- which could have raised the possibility of socialism in some countries.

There are currently no purely socialist countries that exist, however, many countries take the ‘left’ ideologies from socialism and apply them to their government. These borderline socialist countries, are commonly viewed as some of the nicest countries to live in, such as Denmark, Canada, and Sweden. They are viewed as borderline socialist, because of systems such as unemployment cheques, healthcare systems and public education. Taxes that citizens pay go back into the state they are living in, and the government controls the properties that are available to the public. However, these countries are not fully socialist, since they still support capitalism, and the ability to acquire wealth and own personal production and property.

Emily Cardwell

 

Bibliography

Allen, H. Merian. “Socialism.” The Sewanee Review 20, no.1. (January, 1912): 38-44.

Helman, Christopher. “The Worlds Happiest Countries”. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/2011/01/19/norway-

denmark-finland-business-washington-world-happiest-countries.html  (accessed October 14, 2017).

Google NGram Viewer. “Socialism”.

https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Socialism&year_start=1800&year_end=1970&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CSocialism%3B%2Cc0 (accessed October 14).

Chattopadhyay Paresh. “Socialism, Freedom, Democracy: Some Issues.” Economic and Political Weekly 

(Jan. 12 – 18, 2008): 74-77.

Universal Suffrage

Universal Suffrage is the concept of allowing all adult citizens, apart from a choice few depending on the country, the right to vote. The idea of Universal Suffrage was first introduced in the 1700’s, when it was only granted to adult white men in France, although it was not practiced. Suffrage has developed over the centuries and has become an accepted practice in the majority of countries around the world. It has become most synonymous with the woman’s suffrage; however, many minority groups have struggled and fought to gain their universal rights; such as aboriginal groups, who could not participate in any elections until 1960 in Canada.

Universal Suffrage is important to any government that claims to be a democracy. If a government supposedly is a government for the people, it would be wise to give the people say in how their government is run and specifically, by whom. There are many who believe that there should be harsher restrictions on voting, for example, instead of allowing every citizen a say, instead splitting the population into the intelligent and the ignorant, of which only the intelligent have a say and a vote. Voting is a universal right, however there are many restrictions that prevent groups of people from partaking; some countries prevent felons from voting, others have intense race issues that deny people of colour from participating in their civic duty. Allowing only a certain class or race the right to vote encourages an elitist quality in all citizens who can vote and undermines those who cannot. Political leaders or monarchs were afraid of suffrage, afraid of giving their citizens, many of whom had never received any formal education. Despite the many issues that arose when Universal Suffrage was trying to be gained, it is a very important concept in terms of equality; all citizens have a say in who governs them and there is, in a perfect system, not one class or group of people controlling who stays in power in hopes for their own personal gain.

France was the first country to enact widespread universal suffrage for all adult men in 1793, although it was never practiced until after the Revolution. During the July Monarchy, the period that Louis-Phillipe reigned, a man could not vote until he had paid 200 francs in taxes, harsh limits on what was called ‘Universal’ Suffrage. After the Civil War, America granted suffrage to all the adult men who were once slaves, but now who were now freed. Thomas Hare was a prominent lawyer in London, where Suffrage was granted to man based on property after the Bill of 1932. Hare began devising a new plan for parliament when the reform Bill was first presented in 1959, and in his book, he outlined a plan where, essentially, the number of seats in parliament would be divided by the number of votes. Hare strongly opposed a system in which numbers ruled for he feared the elite class would have a drastic influence on Parliament, however he was not for representing minorities either, only to ensure the quality of leadership in Britain. The Reform Bill of 1867 passed, granting suffrage to the urban male working class, but Universal suffrage was denied for women until the early 1900’s, many other countries following later or acting earlier, when the woman’s suffrage movement finally succeeded in gaining the vote for women, albeit primarily white women of privilege.

Sydney Head

 

Bibliography

Alden, W. L. “The Suffrage Paradox.” The North American Review, vol. 146, no. 377, 1888, pp.

468–470. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25101484.

Kern, Paul B. “Universal Suffrage without Democracy: Thomas Hare and John Stuart Mill.” The 

Review of Politics, vol. 34, no. 3, 1972, pp. 306–322. JSTOR, JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/1406497.

Mace, M. Jean. “Universal Suffrage in France.” The North American Review, vol. 156, no. 434,

1893, pp. 27–33. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25102507.

Postcolonialism

The term postcolonialism refers to the impact due to the spread of Western and European culture in their respective colonies from approximately the 20th century onward. It commonly relates to how the natives experienced a loss in traditional culture and way of life. This pertains to colonies in Africa, the Middle East, the subcontinent of India, as well as Central and South America. In Africa, there was little regard to the different cultures when France, Great Britain, Germany, Portugal, and Spain claimed their colonies and cut out their territories (Openibo). In the Americas, Spain brought Christianity over to their colonies, with high hopes that they could convert the indigenous population. This was done by using violence and coercion; Temples were destroyed, religious ceremonies and native languages were prohibited, and there was little regard for the socio-economic systems of the Incas, the Aztecs, and the Mayans. Postcolonialism also refers to revolutions and uprisings against globalization and the spread of Western and European culture in countries that are drastically different to them.

What makes postcolonialism so important to contemporary historical research is because it is a recent movement with impacts that will last for years to come. Jonathan Spencer, a British social anthropologist, explores the impact that colonialism had in South Africa, specifically when it comes to political structures.

What was left behind after the flags were lowered and the new leaders sworn in was not just a lingering nostalgia for the Royal family… What was also left behind was a set of institutions […] that include the legitimacy of the postcolonial nation-state as an ideal framework for political life, a legitimacy usually justified by some appeal to the virtues of representative democracy. (Spencer, 5)

What this means is that postcolonialism describes the disregard for the social, economic, and political systems that were present in the colonies before they were taken over by societies different from theirs. The idea that colonization was justified by saying that it provided an “ideal framework” for democracy undermines the way different cultures in Africa adapted to this drastic change, which was almost always negatively. It also makes the assumption that if colonies did not adopt the way of living found in Europe, they would be considered savage and uncivilized. This is a stereotype that has created a monoculture for the entire continent of Africa, one that is still believed to be accurate today.

Furthermore, if one looks at South America, understanding the impacts of colonialism helps historians understand the problems in Peru today. In a peer review by John Sheahan on the Peruvian economy in 1950, Alfonso Quiroz explains how there has been a “historical neglect” towards the rural communities of Peru in the Andean highlands (Quiroz, 158). It was in the Andes that the Spanish conquistadors took advantage of the Incas, made it compulsory to work hard labour, women’s role in society was reduced, and they claimed they were taking over the land in a Holy Quest. This, in return, left the population devastated. Looking onward, following the civil war and different governments, the Peruvian economy fared well during the mid 20th century. However, due to land insecurities, high rates of illiteracy, and poor infrastructure, many Peruvians living in the southern highlands fall under the poverty line (“Rural Poverty in Peru”). These problems are all attributed to the postcolonial era, which make it so prevalent to contemporary historical analysis.

 

Some of the biggest personalities and events associated with the theory behind postcolonialism include C.L.R James, a leading political activist during the Pan-African movement, Frantz Fanon, a West Indian psychoanalyst known for his writings on the liberation of the colonial peoples, and finally Edward Said, a Palestinian-American activist for the creation of a Palestinian state (Ivison). Many of the impacts of postcolonialism also include revolutions in the European colonies, such as the Tunisian Revolution and the Arab Spring in December 2010 that followed. The Arab Spring was a reaction to postcolonial political order, which is “defined by its oppressive nature and its subjugation within the international system” (Ismael & Ismael, 227). These events were the unintended backlash that colonialism brought forth in the developing nations in the world, and while many view them as violent or aggressive, they were viewed as necessary to the people affected. For these reasons, postcolonialism is one of the most important -isms contemporary historians must be concerned with.

Zainab Hoor Khan

 

Bibliography

Graham, Carol and Stefano Pettinato. “Frustrated Achievers: Winners, Losers, and Subjective Well-Being in Peru’s Emerging Economy.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 606 (2006): 128-136

Ismael, Jacqueline S. and Shereen T. Ismael. “The Arab Spring and the Uncivil State.” Arab Studies Quarterly 35, no. 3 (2013): 229-240.

Ivison, Duncan. “Postcolonialism.” Encyclopedia Britannica . Published September 1, 2015. Accessed October 12, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/postcolonialism.

Openibo, Ayoola Ade. “African and American colonialism under Britain,” Sites at Penn State (blog), October 8, 2014,

https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/08/african-and-american-colonialism-under-briti an/

Quiroz, Alfonso W. “The Americas.” 57, no. 1 (2000): 157-158.
“Rural Poverty in Peru,” International Fund for Agricultural Development , accessed October

12, 2017, https://operations.ifad.org/web/ifad/operations/country/home/tags/peru.

Spencer, Jonathan. “Post-Colonialism and the Political Imagination.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 3, no. 1 (1997): 1-19.

Liberalism

Identification

Liberalism is a political philosophy which is a central part of Western culture and governance.

Who: Liberalism is all about the individual.  The individual is the central focus of the liberalism and protection of individual rights are key.

What: It is a philosophy that is based on liberty and freedom. It is the right of the individual to develop to his or her maximum potential.  It includes freedom of speech, freedom of religion, economic freedom to develop wealth, freedom of thought and expression, equality, democracy, civil rights and cooperation.  Toleration is an important principle and suspicion of unlimited power

When: Liberalism first developed during the 17^th century during the Age of Enlightenment and has continued to the 21^st century.

Where: Liberalism developed in Europe and the United States and influenced revolutions in France, the American Revolution and motivated democratic countries during and after World Wars I and II, the Cold War and the War against Terrorism.

Historical Significance

Liberalism has been the central motivating theme of political systems and has been important to the development of democracy.  Liberalism first developed in the Age of Revolution in England (1685), France (1789), the United States (1776).  The leading motivator was a rebellion against the Church and against monarchies and dictatorships.  During World War I, England, France, the United States and Canada fought for democracy against autocrats like the Kaiser in German and Hapsburgs in Austria.  During the War the Tsar was overthrown and monarchies fell.  World War II was a war of democracy against Fascist dictators in Germany, Italy and Japan (although the Soviet Union was ruled by Stalin).  The Cold War was seen as a conflict between liberal democracies against a Communist dictatorship.  After 911 the War in Afghanistan, Invasion of Iraq and the War on Terror were justified as battles to preserve and create liberal democracy against Islamic radicalism.  Liberalism has also influenced the idea of the United Nations to maintain peace and worldwide cooperation and free trade agreements to encourage liberal trade among nations.  Governments became active after the Depression with the New Deal under Franklin Roosevelt, Great Society programmes under Kennedy and Johnston and Obamacare in the 21^st century.  Liberalism created the view that western democracies founded on individual freedom and capitalism were “a shining city of the hill” for governments in the world which were not.  Liberalism has also evolved over time that to preserve freedom, measures need to be taken which are “illiberal” such as preventative war, limiting individual freedoms, restricting immigration, banning Muslims, torture and the need to stamp out countries which are a threat to liberal progress and “make the world safe for democracy”.  In the United States there is a view by many that “Liberal” is a bad word and that it is the same as left-wing.  In Canada though, “Liberal” is not a bad word and the Liberal Party has governed Canada for 76 of the past 117 years and is seen as “the natural governing party”. Human rights were also part of liberal thinking in international institutions after World War II.

Key Historical Proponents

The “Father of Liberalism” is considered to be John Locke who wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government in 1689 and 1690 at the time of the English Glorious Revolution.  His philosophy was that all men are created equal, that there is a natural right to property, that governments can only rule with the consent of the people and that there must be a separation between Church and state.  Thomas Hobbes who lived in England and died in 1679 was also influential in liberal thinking that there was a natural equality of men, that there is self-interested cooperation and that governments must be based on the consent of the people.  John Stuart Mill an English political philosopher wrote On Liberty in 1859.  This book influenced liberal thought with the ideas that progress depended on cultivating individuality and that freedom of action should be encouraged as possible.  He defined the limits of authority and warned of “the tyranny of the majority” and popular governments that might limit individual freedom.  Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations in 1776 and developed the idea of free markets and capitalism which was important to the economies of Western democracies.  Other key proponents included Alexis de Tocqueville who wrote Democracy in America in 1835 and focussed on democracy, John Maynard Keynes who wrote about active government policies to spur on individual economic progress.  Along the way there have been influential writers such as Montesquieu of France who developed the theory of separation of powers, Rousseau who defined the individual as central to political philosophy, Immanuel Kant of Germany who focussed on progress and the idea that there could be perpetual peace through democracy and progress, Thomas Jefferson who was the author of the US Declaration of Independence.  Louis Hartz wrote “The Liberal Tradition in America” in 1955 bout the American liberal worldview.  Liberal thinking has been at the core of major political writings since the late 17^th century.

Liam O’Brien

 

Works Cited

Desch, Michael C. “America’s Liberal Illiberalism: The Ideological Origins of Overreaction in U.S. Foreign Policy.” International Security, vol. 32, no. 3, 2007, pp. 7–43. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/30130517.

Ivison, Duncan. “Liberty and Government: Hindess and the History of Liberalism.”Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, vol. 36, no. 1, 2011, pp. 10–16. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23211180.

Mill, John Stuart. John Stuart Mill on Liberty. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1859.

Sposito, Frank Andreas. “The American Political Science Review.” The American Political Science Review, vol. 91, no. 3, 1997, pp. 727–729. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2952101.