Gustave Flaubert

Gustave Flaubert was a French novelist. He was born and died in Rouen, France, on the 12^th of December 1821 and the 8^th of May 1880, respectively.  He is most widely known for his novel Madame Bovary, which was published in 1857. After completing his secondary studies at a Lycée in Rouen, he studied law in Paris, but was a despondent student and disliked the city. He gave up law in 1846. (brown 2006) Flaubert is most commonly recognized as a pioneer of the literary movement of Realism. Realism is generally more concerned with the everyday and commonplace aspects of life, and defined predominantly by the precision and care with which the work is constructed. This is in contrast to the preceding era of Victorian literature (which was usually darker and concerned with the grittier aspects of life, and in which the forces of nature contributed greatly to the plot.) Although he was a great realist, there are also prominent aspects of romanticism in his work. As a writer, Flaubert was deeply influenced by the Marquis de Sade, which may seem surprising simply based on the difference in the subjects of their novels. However, over the course of his life, Flaubert returned to de Sade many times – as he was so intrigued by de Sade’s ability to depict physical agony in an artful way that these themes come to the surface in several of Flaubert’s works (for example, Emma’s suicide by arsenic poisoning in Madame Bovary.) (Wall 2007) Flaubert’s style of prose has been described by Vladimir Nobokov as “[a] kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author’s private sentiments […] the legacy of his work habits can best be described […] as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing.” (Nobokov 1980) This kind of precise, slow, self-reflective writing Flaubert is known for is perhaps a response to the criticism his first version of his novel The Temptation of Saint Anthony (1849) received. The Temptation of Saint Anthony is a distinctly fantastical novel, its is Flaubert’s attempt to create a Faust in French, and because it did not initially receive any praise, Flaubert may have changed his writing to focus on more everyday subjects in response to this. (Leal 1990) His writing style did no come naturally to him, as he describes in some of his personal correspondence, but instead was painstakingly constructed. (Flaubert 1980) His most famous and influential novel, Madame Bovary was quite shocking when it was first published, as it depicts a middle-class (bourgeoisie) French woman as breaking the moulds of what was expected of a wife at the time, and giving herself over to passion and foolishness. (Flaubert 2004) This novel is a rather feminist interpretation of the 19^th century woman, although it is not at all glowing. Flaubert recognizes the cage of domesticity that many women were confined to, and a woman’s inability to flee her unsatisfying life without the help of a man. (Flaubert 2004) Flaubert’s construction of a new way of writing a novel influenced many authors who came after him, very notably Franz Kafka. Kafka was deeply influenced by Flaubert’s method of introspective and precise writing, so much so that their attitudes towards the connection between literature and the self were very similar. Kafka was so touched by Flaubert’s attitude towards the painstaking creative process that both writers had a similar method of creating. (Bernheimer 1982) Because of his marrying of realism and romanticism many writers influenced by either movement can trace their influence to Flaubert and his style. Flaubert’s creation of what could be called the modern novel has influenced many writers, as his perfectionist style of realist narration was so captivating. His method of structuring his writing was so influential that many 21^st century readers are so familiar with his influence that it is hard to notice. (Wood, 2009) In terms of literary style, narration, and prose, there was most definitely a time before Flaubert and a time after him.

Astrid Moore

Works Cited

Bernheimer, Charles. Flaubert and Kafka: Studies in Psychopoetic Structure. Yale University Press, 1982.

Brown, Frederick. Flaubert: A Biography. Little Brown, 2006.

Flaubert, Gustave. The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880. Edited by Francis Steegmuller. Harvard University Press, 1980.

Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Leal, R.B. “The Unity of Flaubert’s ‘Tentation de saint Antoine (1874)’”. The Modern Language Review, 85(2). 1990.

Nobokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Literature, Volume 1. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.

Wall, Geoffrey. Thinking with Demons: Flaubert and de Sade. The Cambridge Quarterly, 36(2). Oxford University Press, 2007.

Wood, James. How Fiction Works. Vintage Books, 2009.

Other Relevant Reading

Burton, Richard D.E. The death of politics: the significance of Dambreuse’s funeral in ‘L’Education sentimentale’. French Studies, 50(2). The Society for French Studies, 1996.

De Baisi, Pierre-Marc. Gustave Flaubert : Une Manière Spéciale De Vivre. Paris: B. Grasset, 2009.

George Sand

1804-1876

Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin was a French novelist who wrote under the pseudonym of George Sand. Living during the general civil unrest of the 1800s, she took part in the socio-political movements of Europe, and expressed her views through her many literary works. Sand was the daughter of an aristocratic bastard and a prostitute. This put her in an interesting position: she received an aristocratic level education, thanks to her father, but was disposed to fight for equality for all people, thanks to her mother (What A Woman 72). Among many other things, Sand was a socialist, feminist, and romantic.

Sand, the socialist, had a clear view of what society should look like and expressed it in her novels (Moses 423). Sand’s works often depict characters of different social rankings coming together in love for one another; they effectively abandon, or ignore, the imposed social hierarchy and try to pursue a life of community (Beyer, Kluck 206). For example, in her novel La Ville Noir, Sand explores the hardship of the working class, the challenges of romantic love, and the “dehumanizing” consequences created when compromising between the two (White 703). Her novels’ influence were far reaching; from USA and England to Russia and Hispanoamerica (Beyer, Kluck 206). She inspired many other writers from all areas of the world, such as Turgenev, Barry, Fuller, and Avellaneda, to write and disseminate socialist views (Beyer, Kluck 206). In addition, Sand supported change, but not top-down reforms. Instead, she believed the general masses would overcome inequalities of all kinds and evolve into a better and just society (Walton 1009).

Sand, the feminist, was not afraid to stand for what women deserved, but was also tactful in what items she pushed for. She was realistic. This meant she sometimes went against the mainstream feminist movement (Moses 423). Sand opposed mainstream liberal feminism, as she stated, “women should change popular attitudes through rational persuasion and gradual reforms before engaging in political activism,” (Walton 1014). For example, she championed equality in marriage, but not divorce; advocated female political involvement, but not women’s suffrage – she understood that conditions were not right and that society was not ready for such radical changes (Moses 423). She was criticized heavily for most of her stances; but she did set achievable and sensible goals for women to strive towards. For example, in the 1848 Revolutions, Sand, alongside many others, fought for the “ability for women to sustain their families through waged as well as household labour…not in suffrage, but in women’s capacity to act as both producers and consumers under just and equitable conditions,” (DeGroat 399). Furthermore, in her novels she demonized the oppressive patriarchy by showing how it harmed and limited both her female and male characters (Beyer, Kluck 206). Likewise, Sand riskily challenged gender norms imposed on her by cross-dressing, smoking cigars, having multiple love affairs, and even by choosing George Sand as her pseudonym (What A Woman 72).

Sand, the romantic, countered “masculinist romanticism” and offered the female meaning of romanticism. For men, melancholy poetry, culture, and nature were at the forefront of romanticism. For Sand, however, as for many other female romantics, romanticism was a way to abandon the self “through historical, political, and spiritual efforts” and work to unite the people (Zonana 176). Whereas male romanticism focused on admiration of grand concepts, female romanticism tended to be more individual in scope – more direct and action based (Dale 83). Novels were at the forefront of female romanticism. With her plots and characters, Sand explored social issues through a “female sensibility” (Zonana 177). She held deeply humanistic beliefs that promoted solidarity, progress, and which discouraged violence; she believed in acting for her cause (Grossman 20). Moreover, in her novel La Petite Fadette, Sand explores her “ideal community” by asserting the ideal person: one with “a quick mind and a tender heart”; a person who accepts and exhibits the best aspects inherent to men and women (Grossman 25). Similarly, she was attracted to the “universal religion” proclaimed by two French priests which promoted human progress and unity, she made efforts to politicize it, and was also opposed to religious persecution (Dale 82). Further, she believed artists had a mission to guide humanity towards new heights; thus, making them some of the most crucial members of society (Dale 98). Art, which expresses truth and emotion, and inspires change, was the most powerful tool for Sand, one which she evidently took advantage of.

Sadly, with the failure of the 1848 revolutions and the realization that her ideal society would not come to pass, Sand, became more conservative and was less involved in the socio-political movements of the day (Moses 424). Her notoriety and infamy made her works more widespread; but today, her scandalous life is more well known than her literary contributions or her impact on social movements (What A Woman 72). Even so, she was a source of great inspiration for many, both within France and on a global scale.

Salomé Rodríguez Solarte

Works Cited

Beyer, Sandra and Frederick Kluck. “George Sand and Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda”.

Nineteenth-Century French Studies 19.2. (1991): 203-209. Web.

Dale, Catherine. “The Mirror of Romanticism: Images of Music, Religion and Art Criticism in

George Sand’s Eleventh ‘Lettre d’un Voyageur’ to Giacomo Meyerbeer,” The Romantic Review 87.1 (1996): 83-108. Web.

DeGroat, Judith. “Working-Class Women and Republicanism in the French Revolution of 1848,”

History of European Ideas 38.3 (2012): 399-407. Web.

Grossman, Kathryn. “The Ideal Community of George Sand’s La Petite Fadette,” Utopian 

Studies 6.1. (1995): 19-29. Web.

Moses, Claire. “Eve’s Proud Descendants” The Journal of Modern History 75.2.

(2003): 422-424. Web.

Walton, Whitney. “Writing the 1848 Revolution: Politics, Gender, and Feminism in the Works

of French Women of Letters,” French Historical Studies 18.4. (1994): 1001-1024. Web.

“What A Woman; George Sand,” The Economist 372.8386 (2004): 72-73. Web.

White, Claire. “Labour of Love: George Sand’s La Ville Noire and Emile Zola’s Travail,” The 

Modern Language Review 106.3. (2011): 697-708. Web.

Zonana, Joyce. “Tracing Women’s Romanticism.” Tulsa’s Studies in Women’s Literature 27.1.

(2008): 176-177. Web.

Other Relevant Reading

Barry, Joseph. “Infamous Woman: The Life of George Sand,” Our Image (n.a.) (1977): 19. Web.

Brown, Penny. “The Reception of George Sand in Spain,” Comparative Literature Studies 25.3.

(1988): 203-224. Web.

Mitzman, Arthur. “Michelet and Social Romanticism: Religion, Revolution, Mature,” Journal Of 

the History of Ideas 57.4 (1996): 659-682. Web.

Richards, L.F Sylvie. “Finding Her Own Voice: George Sand’s Autobiography,” Women’s 

Studies An Interdisciplinary Journal 22. (1993): 137-144. Web.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill was born on May 20, 1806 in Pentonville, London United Kingdom to Harriet Burrow and James Mill. James Mill had considerable influence on John’s life (W.L). His father was a driving force for John’s academic career, and was the person who introduced John to the theory of utilitarianism, due to James Mill’s friendship with Jeremy Bentham (W.L).

When discussing John Stuart Mill it is important to discuss the role his father played in his life. James Mill constantly pushed John academically. It was his father that introduced John Stuart Mills to utilitarianism, but he was also a figure in  life that greatly limited him. John’s mental crisis in 1826, was said to have been caused by the intense stress of his education and the continual influence of his domineering father (W.L). It was only after his father’s death that John began to understand the breadth of his intellectual freedom.

Mill was a supporter of utilitarianism during his teenage years.  His theory is that society should do whatever brings the most amount of happiness to the greatest number of people (Giovanni, Piacquadio). It is understandable to see how many people would support this idea, as it seems logical. The contradictors of utilitarianism believe that this idea is dangerous as it sacrifices the rights of few for the pleasure of many. After suffering his mental crisis in 1826, Mill began seeing the limitation of utilitarianism, and strived to find a theory that had no limitations(Giovanni, Piacquadio).

After Mill’s mental crisis, he adapted his theory of utilitarianism, and his new theory later became known as the Harm Principle, which was first mentioned in his book On Liberty (Holtug).  The Harm Principle can be divided into two parts; the first part being that an individual can do whatever actions they please in society, since these actions only pertain to the individual (Holtug). The second part is that society can intervene when the individual’s actions begin to endanger the lives of those around them and others (Holtug). When the Harm Principle was first introduced, many people saw this theory as a way to defend people’s hedonistic actions (Hoag). An example of the Harm Principle is that a person can drink themselves to death alone, but the moment they get behind a wheel and drive, they are now endangering the lives of those around them. Mill’s theory is still used today to defend the freedom of the person, especially in Western societies. A modern day example of using the Harm Principle has been when defending the rights of the LTGBQ persons and community.  The way that a member of the LTBGQ society is living makes them happy, and while you may be offended by their lifestyle, it should be accepted as their lifestyle is not causing you any physical harm. There should be no laws preventing their lifestyle.  It is interesting because in Victorian England, many of Mill’s theories were praised because they were ideals to the people who had been marginalized under the monarch rule (Holtug). These notions can be parallel to many of today’s issues as some Americans are getting frustrated with the degree of control the government has over things that should not be of concern to them, including abortion and sexuality.  It is felt that the government should focus their efforts on the economy and protecting their citizens.

Mill was very vocal about a women’s place in the society. In his novel, The Subjection of Women, which is seen as an important piece of Victorian modern feminism literature, he connected the idea of a women’s place in society to his idea of liberty (McGlynn, Ward). Which connected back to the Harm Principle. Mill felt that a woman should not be limited to being a housewife or limited to the perceived female-oriented jobs. Mill felt that there was no harm in a woman being involved with the non-stereotyped roles and jobs, as he felt that they could bring value and a different perspective (McGlynn, Ward).  Therefore, there should be no harm if either a man or woman fills a job or role as long as they are best suited for the job.  This is still an issue today and is relevant as there are some men that still believe that women should stay at home or that men are better. The issues that women are second class citizens, that they are not as capable as men and that they should only work in female-oriented jobs are still prominent in developing countries.

Based on the Harm Principal, Mill placed a lot of value on the rights and freedoms of the individual, when there is no harm to others. Mill was also a supporter of commerce and an “inheritor of the utilitarian tradition that had been placed on person growth”, and because of this warned against societies that suppressed the individuality of the person (Mishra 297-298).

Mill’s theories  are as relevant today as they were when they were first introduced centuries ago. In today’s world, many people are very informed, and the new and different issues can apply the Harm Principle.  Part of the issues today is with some governments that want to have control and feel that the individual cannot decide or protect themselves; but if society followed the Harm Principle then there would not need as much government intervention.  It can be interpreted that some governments are legislating their views in the hope that they can influence others to have the same beliefs.  The continued use of the Harm Principle in legal issues further demonstrates the relevancy and timelessness of this theory.

Tanya Hodkinson

Work Cited

Hoag, Robert W. “Happiness and Freedom: Recent Work on John Stuart Mill.” Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 15, no. 2, 1986, pp. 188–199. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2265386.

Holtug, Nils. “The Harm Principle.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 5, no. 4, 2002, pp. 357–389. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27504250.

Mishra, Pankaj. Age of Anger. [New York]. Picador, 2017. Print.

Piacquadio, Paolo Giovanni. “A Fairness Justification of Utilitarianism.” Econometrica, vol. 85, no. 4, July 2017, pp. 1261-1276. EBSCOhost, doi: 10.3982/ECTA14151.

Ward, Ian and Clare McGlynn. “Women, Law and John Stuart Mill.” Women’s History Review, vol. 25, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 227-253. EBSCOhost, doi 10.1080/09612025.2015.1039350

W. L. “The Enduring Influence of John Stuart Mill.” The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 41, no. 4, 1982, pp. 332–332. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3486209

Further Readings 

1. On Liberty By: John Stuart Mill
2. The Subjection of Women By: John Stuart Mill
3. Principles of Political Economy By: John Stuart Mill
4. Utilitarianism By: John Stuart Mill

Olympe de Gouges

Olympe de Gouges was born Marie Gouze on May 7, 1748 in Montauban, France, and died at the age of 45 on November 3, 1793 in Paris. She changed her name to Olympe de Gouges after she was widowed in 1766. Gouges started her career as a self-taught playwright in 1780, and her work became more popular after 1791 when restrictions on theatre and copyright was lifted (Nielsen, 2002, p. 2). Gouges was responsible for placing women on the stage during the Festival of Law – a festival in honour of the assassinated mayor –  and promoted even militaristic presence on stage, an act at odds with the concept of liberal nation states (Nielsen, 2002, p.13). Gouges lived during the heart of the French Revolution (1789 – 1799), and throughout her life of political activism, fought for the rights of women and spoke out against slavery. She is considered by many to be the world’s first feminist primarily because of her most notable and most influential work, Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, in which she denounced the Constitution of 1791 for not including the suffrage of women (Scott, 1989, p. 8). Many of her plays showcased the issues of her society and economy. One of her plays, La Nécessité du Divorce, argued in favour of the right for women to divorce their husbands. Gouges was immediately enthralled and engaged in the ideas of the French Revolution, however when it became clear to her that women were not to be included in the wave of liberty and equality, she began to speak out against the men who had told her where she belonged, stating; “tell me, what gives you the sovereign power to oppress my sex?” (Hanley, 1997, p. 2). Alongside campaigning for women’s rights, Gouges was a great supporter of constitutional monarchy, believing that a separation of powers was the only way the female citizen would gain their much-deserved rights; although there was danger the king would continue to oppress all of his citizens, the democratic republic the revolutionists were fighting for was clearly going to leave women behind. Gouges expanded the ideas of the Revolution – one of the most impactful events in history, and unquestionably the key event in her life – to include women and to “bring about a second revolution within the Revolution” (Nielsen, 2002, p. 10); she encouraged women to go out, to be socially active, to be engaged in the Republic they were most certainly a part of. Gouges argued that women who became isolated in their private life caused more of a threat than the woman who was free to walk about. Jean-Jacques Rousseau had a strong influence on Gouges life, as she is considered part of a generation of French women who were inspired by his way of thought and self-education. (Nielsen, 2002, p. 9). Gouges wrote a few plays that featured Rousseau, Les Rêveries de Jean- Jacques, et la mort de Rousseau and Mirabeau aux Champs-Elysees Rousseau a Ermenonville. She takes Rousseau’s concepts of the active vs the passive citizen to argue her stance in favour of the female citizen engaged in public life (Nielson, 2002, p. 13). Gouges, because of her strong stand in favour of women’s rights and sympathy for the idea of a constitutional monarchy, ultimately found herself out of favour with the major faction of the revolutionaries. She was executed by guillotine in 1793 (Hanley, 1997, p. 26). Olympe de Gouges was a courageous and strong woman, one of the few voices for women during one of the darkest periods in French history.

Sydney Head

Works Cited

Hanley, Sarah. “Social Sites of Political Practice in France: Lawsuits, Civil Rights, and the Separation of Powers in Domestic and State Government, 1500-1800.” The American Historical Review, vol. 102, no. 1, 1997, pp. 27–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2171265

Nielsen, Wendy C. “Staging Rousseau’s Republic: French Revolutionary Festivals and Olympe De Gouges.” The Eighteenth Century, vol. 43, no. 3, 2002, pp. 268–285. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41467908.

Scott, Joan Wallach. “French Feminists and the Rights of ‘Man’: Olympe De Gouges’s Declarations.” History Workshop, no. 28, 1989, pp. 1–21. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4288921.

Other Relevant Readings

Gouges, Olympe de. Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen. 1791.

Simone de Beauvoir

January 9, 1908 – April 14, 1986

There are many words for which one could use to describe Simone de Beauvoir: she was, among many other things, a writer, an intellectual, a feminist and an existentialist philosopher. Her body of work, which includes “novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs philosophy, politics and social issues” (World Heritage Encyclopedia) is credited with having a significant and lasting influence on feminist theory as well as feminist existentialism.

Simone de Beauvoir was born in the Paris district of Montparnasse to a bourgeois family who was, at the time, experiencing a decline in their fortunes. Despite this, de Beauvoir reported a happy childhood wherein “she learned to read at the age of three and enjoyed a boundless curiosity which the extended family was eager to satisfy” (Appignanesi, 11). Being born into a bourgeois family in France at that time meant that Beauvoir was born into a world of “propriety and ‘cultivated distinction’; an artificial politeness and taste that regulated every aspect of her family’s lives and set them apart from the great body of French society” (Bair, 22). It was world that hardly welcomed Simone’s father, who lost his fortune and therefore lost his status, leading many to “[pretend] we was a stranger and not related at all” (Bair, 22). It was a world that, as she got older, Beauvoir would seemingly disregard. Beauvoir’s takeaway from her early years for the most part was “an ingrained sense that power, the intellectual life and the potential for shaping one’s own destiny were the property of the male” (Appignanesi, 20). This understanding of the world is one she would combat through her work later in life.

Simone attended a Catholic institution as of 1913, which demonstrated a stark contrast between her upbringing and that of her extended family and social peers; whereas most girls were educated via a governess at home, Simone’s family could not handle the expense. Simone’s relationship with religion is a complex one; despite being taught in a Catholic environment in her younger years, and having a rather devoted Catholic for a mother, her views as she got older, such as her support of abortion rights and “condemnation of the oppressive nature of woman’s traditional role directly challenged a cornerstone of religious conservativism” (Simons, 7).

Simone de Beauvoir stands out from the plethora of intellectual women before her; whereas women like Virginia Woolf were “excluded from the major educational institutions of their day” (Moi, 23), Beauvoir found herself included in the “first generation of European women […] educated on par with men” (Moi, 23). Her scholarly accomplishments include being the ninth woman in France to complete and pass the agrégation exam in the field of philosophy. She was also “the youngest agrégée ever in that discipline, regardless of gender” (Moi, 23).

 

What is probably Beauvoir’s most notable work, The Second Sex (1949), is attributed as having been instrumental in forming the foundation of contemporary feminism.Within the text, she “placed existentialist ethics within a historical and political context and laid the philosophical foundations for radical feminism” (Simons, 5). The book is not only about women, as one might suspect, but rather it is about “humanity under patriarchy, about ‘gender’ as [society has] come to understand it” (Simons, 30). Her argument that sex is a distinct and separate entity from gender is one that has made itself an integral part in the “long-standing effort to debunk the claim that anatomy is destiny” (Butler, 35). While The Second Sex is not her only important contribution to the field of philosophy, it is possibly her most important philosophical texts as many of the arguments made in the book are those that feminists of all kind are continuing to use in contemporary contexts.

There are many words that could be used to describe Simone de Beauvoir, and provide a glimpse into who and what she was. She can be described simply as a writer, as an intellectual, as an existentialist philosopher. Of all the ways in which one could describe the great Simone de Beauvoir, though, the words that seems most fitting in this: feminist.

Brittany Loree-Stroeder

Works Cited:

Appignanesi, Lisa. Simone de Beauvoir. Haus Publishing, 2005.

Bair, Deirdre. Simone de Beauvoir: a biography. Vintage, 2003.

Butler, Judith. “Sex and Gender in Simone De Beauvoir’s Second Sex.” Yale French Studies, no. 72, 1986, pp. 35–49. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2930225.

Moi, Toril. Simone de Beauvoir: the making of an intellectual woman. Oxford University Press, 2008. Simons, Margaret A. Feminist interpretations of Simone de Beauvoir. The Pennsylvania State University

Press, 1996.

World Heritage Encyclopedia. “Simone de Beauvoir.” Project Gutenberg, central.gutenberg.org/articles/ eng/Simone_de_Beauvoir.

Other Relevant Reading:

Bauer, Nancy. Simone de Beauvoir, philosophy, & feminism. Columbia University Press, 2001. Beauvoir, Simone de. The second sex. Éditions Gallimard, 1949.
Card, Claudia. The Cambridge companion to Simone de Beauvoir. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Judith Butler

Judith Butler is an American philosopher best known for her stances on feminism, gender roles in society and lesbian and gay rights movements. She is highly educated with her B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. all achieved from Yale University, and she has been a teaching professor at several academically appraised universities. On top of all this, Butler is the Hannah Arendt Professor of Philosophy at the European Graduate School located in Switzerland. She is an influence to all generations and is an important advocate for marginalized groups in society.

Historically speaking, Butler’s contributions are not very well known due to most of her work being done in the present and very recent past, however her work is still and always will be very relevant and important. The history surrounding women’s rights and individual sexuality is harmful, brutal and unjust, it is from the works of people like Butler that these platforms have transformed and improved dramatically in this modern era. So it is obvious to say that Butler’s efforts and views today have a huge impact on the future and how society changes over time, although it is also evident that she has already contributed and impacted the history of many movements.

Butler’s impacts on history are generated from her published work including several books written on the subjects of gender and sex. Her very first book was all about the idea of desire based on the opinion of Hegel and was titled Subjects of Desire: Hegelian Reflections in Twentieth-Century France. With this book she brought forth different interpretations and viewpoints that were seen in society in the 20th century. By introducing these different opinions in her published work, Butler was on the road to generating a more inclusive yet vastly opinionated environment surrounding all types of controversial topics. This type of environment had not been seen much at this time due to the fact that topics like this were taboo and thought of as unnatural to speak openly about, Butler helped crush that narrative.

Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, known to be one of Butler’s most well known books, was published in 1990. During this time, third wave feminism was practically in full swing and continued to grow into a massive global movement. It is obvious to see that Butler’s work had an influence on this, her book was written all about social creations and ideas, stereotyping and the injustice based on it. Third wave feminism is known as a more modern movement of feminism that is based on these same issues along with basic women’s rights and everything else feminists are fighting to change. Butler definitely sparked the flame of some individuals in the late 20th century who now call themselves proud feminists in 2017.

 

That same book, Gender Trouble, is also said to be the main influence on the creation of what is known as queer theory. Queer theory is an approach that studies gender as a nonessential part of one’s identity, since it is a social construct, gender and sexuality are looked at as non- correlating characteristics. Queer theory just shows how gender, sex and desire are not connected, how they differ and that they are individualistic. This entire body of thought did not even exist until Butler and other modern thinking individuals expressed their thoughts and published them into society. The creation of an entire way of thinking that was entirely new to the 20th century was generated by Butler, and that is her major historical impact.

Without her opinionated influence on this queer theory creation, Butler’s impact would be minimal and society would appear so different to what it is today. It would not be continuously working towards improving equal rights and freedoms for all no matter the gender or sexuality expressed by individuals, and it is so important that this continues to happen. The impact Judith Butler has had on the topics of gender, sexuality, feminism and social constructs will always be substantial to all individuals in society.

Mary Shelley

August 30^th 1797-February 1^st 1851

Mary Shelley was an English novelist, editor and biographer, most famous for her novel ‘Frankenstein’. Although she had published many novels after ‘Frankenstein’, none had been more successful than it. Mary’s husband was poet Percy Shelley; and the two moved to Italy when Mary was sixteen. Mary had three children, however only one survived past infancy. Mary’s husband drowned in 1822, after which she returned to England with her last remaining child. Mary never re-married and focused on her child’s well-being as well as her writing. It is assumed Mary died of a brain tumor in 1851.

During her time period, Mary quickly discovered that she lived within a “gendered world”, especially considering her profession as a writer. She was a romantic and a feminist because of this, and many of her works- including Frankenstein- reflect her ideologies. Shelley was also influenced by her mother Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Women”, a feminist novel that caused controversy at the time of its publication.

It is argued that Frankenstein challenges male authority and obsession, in order to represent female inadequacy and anxieties within their time. Mary Shelley’s work was highly relevant to her time period due to the fact that feminism and challenging the patriarchy was a newly introduced concept. Making Mary, as well as other female romantic authors, some of the first “feminists” as we know it today.

In Shelley’s first novel “Frankenstein” there is representation of gender bias that existed at the time the novel was published in 1817. Dr. Frankenstein assumes the role of being the lone creator of life, which many interpret as a denial of female sexuality, and the importance of women in regards to reproduction. As well as this, the society that the novel takes place in is vastly divided by sex. Men assume the roles in public community and women are in charge of domestic life. Due to this fact, intelligence and emotions are also segregated. This is what ultimately leads to the downfall of Dr. Frankenstein, since he does not feel empathy for his creation. A contrast to this is the De Lacy family within the novel, since work is equally distributed and they all have the same feelings of affection and morals despite gender. This represents an ideal family in Shelley’s eyes, and contrasts the harshness of other families within the novel. This challenges the family model of the time period Mary Shelley lived in, since- just as in “Frankenstein”, women were to assume all domestic work.

The novel is extremely feminist, and exposes Victor Frankenstein as horrible and destructive due to his lack of emotion, and his suggestion that women are to be denied sexuality. Frankenstein turns his back on nature; which is expressed to be a female within the context of the novel. Nature then seeks revenge upon Frankenstein, showing that women have the power to take control over situations, even when men make them appear to be weak. This has a powerful impact over the novel, and why it was so influential within feminism in the 1800’s. It introduced a commentary on how society had placed women, and how women intended to break that mold.

The feminism represented by Shelley in this novel is considered to be “old feminism”, this movement represented the need for women to be viewed as people instead of property, and have the ability to be responsible for their own actions. The women’s suffrage movement was an evolved form of this feminism, and “old feminism” was a stepping stone towards modern feminism.

Emily Cardwell

 

Bibliography

Alexander, Meena. Women in romanticism: Mary Wollstonecraft, Dorothy Wordsworth, and 

Mary Shelley. Orient Longman, 1995

Conrad, Charles. “The transformation of the “old feminist” movement.” Quarterly Journal of 

Speech, vol. 67, no. 3, 1981, pp. 284–297., doi:10.1080/00335638109383573.

Meller, Anne K. “”Possessing Nature: The Female in Frankenstein”.” Romanticism and 

Feminism, University Press, 1993.

Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, et al. Frankenstein, or, The modern Prometheus. Broadview Press,

2012.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. “On Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818).” The Prose Works 

of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Vol. 1, 1993, pp. 282–491., doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00065579.

Emma Goldman

June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940

Emma Goldman revolutionized the world through her actions, writings, and lectures. She neglected social norms and strived to enlighten humanity, particularly women and spark social change. Although she was a complex woman, her passion and persuasion stimulated positive development in areas that desperately required revising.

Goldman was born in Lithuania on June 27, 1869, into an orthodox Jewish family to a “disappointed” father and “cold” mother (Berkeley). Throughout her adolescence, she lived in parts of what is modern-day the Czech Republic and Russia. She grew up during and in the Russian Empire, experiencing an absolute monarchy which aided in molding her into the radical anarchist that she became. Goldman immigrated to Rochester, New York with her sister and began working in deplorable conditions and an inhumane environment, typical for the late 19th century (Ferguson 1). Her work surroundings first initiated her disdain for capitalist society and stimulated her to become an activist for workers rights. However, it was the Haymarket Affair; where anarchists bombed brutal police officers during a workers’ protest in 1886, that completely inspired Goldman to learn about and embrace anarchism and revolutionize the area concerning workers’ rights (Everett 270). Goldman became inspired by nihilist revolutionaries, Russian Radicalists, Peter Kropotkin, Mikail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and Max Stirner who focused on anarchism, individualism, mutualism, and overall revolution; these ideas became very prominent in Goldman’s “anarchism without adjectives” (Ferguson 2). She lectured from January 1890 until December 1939, five months before her death on May 14th, 1940 in Toronto. Goldman discussed anarchism, workers, and women rights in her lectures that travelled through the United States, to Europe, and Canada (Berkeley). Throughout her life, Goldman essentially preached for the liberation of workers and provoked society to work together to achieve emancipation from oppressive governments. One can surmise that Goldman supported anarchism because throughout her entire life she witnessed powerful leaders inflicting adversity among their subjects and citizens facing hardships; evident in the Russian Empire, Industrial Revolution, First World War, and communism. She continually justified radical anarchist terrorism; she even conspired in the failed assassination of Henry Clay Frick in 1892 with her lover and comrade, Alexander Berkman (Palmer 2). Although she would famously lecture, Goldman, founded the Mother Earth magazine as an outlet for discussions of anarchism and feminism (Berkeley). Rochelle Gurstein speculates that Goldman viewed anarchism as individual freedom that “… required direct action, the open defiance of, and resistance, to all laws and restrictions economic, social, and moral” (Gurstein 68).

 

Due to her religious background and the time period, Goldman was persuaded by her family to remarry Jacob A. Kersner, whom of which she broke apart from. Ultimately when she finalized her divorce to Kersner in 1888, her family and the Jewish community that she belonged to scorned her (Berkeley). This societal patriarchal disapproval of divorce drove Goldman to reject the classic structure of marriage and family that women were forced to adhere to. Goldman became a colossal feminist icon partly because of these feelings, she encouraged relationships that allowed for sexual autonomy and were not controlled by men’s desires (Ferguson 734). She bluntly preached that “…wives were the slaves and prostitutes of their husbands. She said women should forget about suffrage until they could forget about their reputations. She argued that sex was healthy and natural. She told people to talk to their lovers, spend time with them as friends, and allow them other relationships.” (Collins 2). Essentially Goldman advocated for

women to be in control of their own bodies and be boundless sexual beings like men while also promoting the idea that men and women should work together in order to overthrow large-scale oppressors. These beliefs compelled her to endorse the practice of birth control demanding that women should have jurisdiction over their own bodies and reproduction (Ferguson 2). This candid discourse was completely revolutionary for the time due to the power that men had over society. Goldman’s lectures inspired latter feminist movements and essentially made her one of the most prominent faces of feminism during the late 19th to mid 20th century. However, although her progressive stance and dialogue ultimately assisted with future feminism and women’s rights, she was often viewed as too radical during her reign. As mentioned by Goldman herself, “the tragedy of all emancipated women, myself included, is that we are rooted in the old soil though our visions are of the future.” (Collins 3). She was arrested many times due to her craving for change and appetite for development within women’s rights; publicly supporting birth control. By taking her family life and religious upbringing into consideration, it can be speculated that Goldman’s contempt for patriarchal traditions and practices first arose due to her family’s interactions, her father’s disappointment when she turned out to be a girl, and witnessed male dominance within her orthodox Jewish household. Goldman also lived during a period where women were customarily viewed as inferior and possessions of men.

Goldman’s resilience led her to be brutalized, arrested numerous times, and deported from the United States to Russia. She was more than progressive for her time which made her into an icon for workers, anarchists, and feminists. Her actions, writings, and lectures demonstrated that dedication and strong beliefs can enlighten dark societies.

 

Laurel Brandes

Works Cited
Berkeley University. “Emma Goldman Papers.” libcom.org, 2016.

Carter, Everett. “The Haymarket Affair in Literature.” American Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1950): 270-78.

Collins, Levi. “Rooted in the Old Soil: Emma Goldman’s Path to Sexual Modernism.” Rooted in the Old Soil: Emma Goldman’s Path to Sexual Modernism, 2011, 1-120.

Ferguson, Kathy E., Dr. “Emma Goldman’s “Anarchism Without Adjectives”.” The Public Domain Review. Web.

Ferguson, Kathy E. “Gender and Genre in Emma Goldman.” Signs 36, no. 3 (2011): 733-57. Gurstein, Rochelle. “Emma Goldman and the Tragedy of Modem Love.” Salmagundi, no.

135/136 (2002): 67-89.
Palmer, Brian D. “Sasha and Emma: The Anarchist Odyssey of Alexander Berkman and

Emma Goldman.”, no. 72 (February 2013): 370-72.

Other Relevant Reading
Domenico, Kim C. “Emma Goldman and the Soul of Anarchism.” Www.counterpunch.org.

May 04, 2017.
Falk, Candace, and Suzanna Marten. “Love, Anarchy, and Emma Goldman.” Love, Anarchy,

and Emma Goldman 69 (1985-1986): 156-57. JSTOR.
Ferguson, Kathy E. Emma Goldman: political thinking in the streets. Lanham, MD: Rowman

& Littlefield Publishers, 2013.

Egalitarianism

Identification

Egalitarianism is a social idea which places emphasis on equal treatment and fairness for all, despite one’s social status, wealth, race, or gender. This theory on how societies ought to be was first popularized in the end of the 17^th and beginning of the 18^th century, when people most desired the rejection of inequality. This was around the time of the Enlightenment era and the French revolution which placed a great importance on social status in society. Concepts associated with egalitarianism were first introduced by philosophers Karl Marx and John Locke. Egalitarianism exists in many different forms, with the most popular including: racial, political, and social egalitarianism. This philosophical ideal is not to be confused with communism, since egalitarianism does not desire sameness for everyone’s wealth or lifestyle. Merely, its goal is to provide everyone with the same opportunities and rights and to remove any inequalities that would provide some people with better treatment than others.

Historical Significance

The popularization of egalitarianism has allowed for many improvements over the course of history. The desire for equal treatment of all has allowed for societal progression away from slavery, and racial, or gender inequalities. A big part of the Enlightenment era in the 18^th century was the emphasis on social status, and wealth which gave people more respect. Others who did not meet the criteria were not treated with the same respect or importance. However, egalitarians believe that social status should not dictate or play a role in a person’s rights and overall treatment. This egalitarian ideal was even expanded beyond Western societies. For example, Western influence in countries like Egypt allowed for a change in the perception or role of women in their society. Specifically, gender egalitarian ideals were shared with such countries and allowed for feminist movements, where they fought for equal rights with men. The ideas of this –ism have influenced women to gain further education and to pursue “male-dominated” careers. However, civil rights movements from the 50s and 60s in the United States aimed to criticize egalitarian ideals, believing that those ideals don’t stand against racial inequality, but rather promote it. With our modern civilization progressing more towards liberalism and egalitarianism and further stray from capitalism, it is predicted that the fight for equal treatment will continue.

Key Historical Components

Egalitarianism seemed to be getting more and more popular with the progression of human history. Philosophers such as Marx, Locke and Nozick advocated for the benefits brought by egalitarianism. John Locke in particular believed that status or wealth should not play a role in a person’s treatment. Most of these philosophers belonged to the 18^th and 19^th century, a time when egalitarian ideals were greatly needed. However, conflicting opinions on egalitarianism have allowed for debate on whether or not egalitarian ideals actually improve societies. John Rawl’s is one of the most well-known advocates for egalitarianism, and this is evident in his book A Theory of Justice (1971). Its aim is to showcase ideas of egalitarianism by explaining the concept most associated with this theory; distributive justice. The idea of distributive justice emphasizes that one’s treatment and rights should not be based on what they cannot control (e.g. their social class and race). Now, author H.J. McCloskey has criticized egalitarian desire for equality, believing that people only desire certain forms of equality which benefit them only, while disregarding others. Another author who challenged egalitarian ideals was Gunnar Myrdal, in his novel An American Dilemma (1944). This novel focused on issues faced by African Americans in egalitarian-based societies. The novel showcases racial egalitarianism as a method to conceal racial issues that occurred in the U.S., rather than seeking for a solution to racism. Egalitarian views began around the time of the French Revolution and to this day, they continue to have an impact on our history.

Onela Esho

 

Bibliography

Kucinskas, Jaime. “A Research Note on Islam and Gender Egalitarianism: An Examination of

Landesman, Bruce M. “Egalitarianism.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy, vol. 13, no. 1,

Leach, Colin Wayne. “Democracy’s Dilemma: Explaining Racial Inequality in Egalitarian

Yengoyan, Aram A. “Origin, Hierarchy and Egalitarianism Among the Mandaya of

Schwartz, Justin. “From Libertarianism to Egalitarianism.” Social Theory and Practice, vol. 18,

Sexism

Sexism is the ongoing struggle occurring between the sexes that refers to one gender believing that they are superior to another or one gender oppressing the other gender. Sexism can also refer to the beliefs that are held about a certain gender and how they are or are not met. Sexism has been ongoing since the beginning of human life and interaction and while it continues to appear in current times, the fight against it has become much more prominent and effective that it has been before. Sexism materializes all over the world, however it is considerably more aggressive in certain countries, often countries that are also affected by some of the other ‘isms’.

Sexism is a hugely important part of history because it deals with the oppression of women, the ongoing fight for women to be equal to men, and the ways in which the integration of women into different parts of society has lead to critical human advancements. Sexism is one of the most recognized and most common forms of discrimination and while it be discriminatory against both genders, it more regularly manifests in the manner of oppression and injustice towards women. Over the past two centuries, women have been protesting to gain equal rights to men and have won many of their battles however, there are still many inequalities to be argued and addressed. Prejudice against women is still very prevalent in today’s society, yet, it is not presented in the same way as it was fifty to one hundred years ago. Historically, women were fighting for their opportunities, to be given the chance to reach their full potential, and to ward off the oppression that was forced down on them; fights that are certainly not over but are beginning to come to a resolution in many parts of the world. The bigger issues facing women today have more to do with the stereotypes, expectations, and inherent lack of respect shown through violence and aggression towards them, devaluing their roles as important members of society. These stereotypes and expectations have evolved over time; the belief that women should cook, clean, and take care of children and that is all was a commonly held belief in society not too long ago. Today these beliefs are more geared towards expectations of what women should look like and constraints on how they should act and what decisions they should be making to deem themselves acceptable by society. It is beliefs like these that have caused a hinderance in giving women the opportunity to encounter their best selves, by their own definition, not by that of somebody else.

Feminists are a group of people who sprung from the problems of sexism against women, their goal being to achieve equal rights for men and women. There are considered to be three waves of feminism; the first being from the 1830s to the early 1900s, the second being from the 1960s to the 1980s, and the third being from the 1990s to our current day. In the beginning waves, the number of active feminists was significantly lower than in the wave that has been going on for the past two decades because the idea of women rising up against men was an unfamiliar idea that seemed dangerous and confusing to many people. However, some of the most important contributors in the fight for women’s rights emerged during these first and second waves. One of these women was Susan B. Anthony, an active women’s

rights advocate from 1866 to 1904 and a woman who founded the National Women’s Suffrage Association, an association that fought for the women’s right to vote. Women’s suffrage, beginning in 1848 and continuing on for fifty more years, was a crucial time not only because it ended in women’s right to vote but also because it was the first time that women were using their voices and seeking out what was important to them. While Anthony was one of the first influential women to speak out about rights, many other women followed her, including; Simone de Beauvoir, a french writer and philosopher whose ideas about feminism influenced many women during the 1900s and Gloria Steinem, an activist who fought against the constraints of women during the 1960s and 1970s. These activists helped women achieve many of the opportunities that they have today and created a path for other women to express themselves and their desires freely and without judgement.

Sarah Kirkwood

 

Bibliography:

1. Evans, S. M. (2013). Feminism’s History and Historical Amnesia. Modern

   Intellectual History, 10, 2, 503-513.

2. Henneberg, S. (2010). Moms do badly, but grandmas do worse: The nexus of sexism

   and ageism in children’s classics. Journal of Aging Studies, 24, 125-134.

3. Vozzola, E. C. (1998). We Dream, you do: “Great” Grandmothers Teach a Lesson in Womens Changing Roles. Teaching of Psychology, 25 (4), 289-291. doi:10.1080/009

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