Salvador Allende

June 26, 1908 – September 11, 1973

Salvador Allende was the 56th president of Chile. What differs him from other presidents, however, would be that he was the first democratically elected president with a socialist and openly self-proclaimed marxist agenda. His presidential term was between 1970 to 1973, the Cold War era.

To understand his significance, it would probably be key to understand the political and social situation of Chile during his time in politics. The political structure in Chile is similar to the one in the traditional western model, with a left, right and centre spectrum (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). There were numerous presidents before Allende’s election, all offering different solutions to the different problems the Chilean public faced, such as economic issues like housing and inflation that was still prevalent during Allende’s campaign (Drobny, 1983). When looking at the limited available Chilean voter data, Allende had high popularity amongst low income workers, and those with both lower and higher educational status, but not those in the middle (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Looking at this information alone, it is very easy to make the assumption that Allende’s support and victory came from a class based one. Allende represented something different for Chile than the more western based ideologies. Socialist and communistic ideas from figures like Fidel Castro were prominent in Latin America (Power, 2008). Their influence caused guerrilla warfare in many places in Latin America, looking for change and an uprising, except for Chile, which heavily stayed towards its electoral voting process as a method for change (Power, 2008). Allende and his marxist ideologies were alluring to the struggling classes and scholars of Chile demanding change and not receiving it from the western model.

 

It is important to note that Allende’s campaign and election was a part of the Cold war era Latin America’s front, with the Soviet Union supporting Allende, and the United States opposed to him. The U.S invested millions into an anti-Allende campaign (Power, 2008), while the Soviets funded Allende’s candidacy, marking this as a clear Cold War confrontation between socialist and western ideals (Kedar, 2015). Allende’s presidency was almost a clear cut example of how the Cold War is usually described: Allende was a socialist, which immediately made him an enemy of the United states and allies with the Soviet Union, which resulted in a large political battleground to be set. The United States demonized socialism and Allende himself throughout his campaign through radio, newspaper and other outlets (Power, 2008). When Allende did obtain presidency, United States President Nixon stated to his advisors to ‘Make the (Chilean) Economy Scream’ to combat Allende’s government (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Inflation rose more in Chile and people either blamed the chilean government, or the governments opposition on the situation (Navia & Rodrigo, 2017). Despite the Soviet Unions economic aid and support towards Allende’s government (Power, 2008), Allende was cornered in a CIA and upper class influenced coup d’etat, where he proceeded to kill himself. This Cold War conflict reinforces the idea of the modern ‘age of aggression.’ Conflict between western ideologies and socialist beliefs creating angry men and conflict between people.

Gurwinder Sidhu

Works Cited:

Drobny, Andres. “THE INFLUENCE OF MINIMUM WAGE RATES ON THE LEVEL AND DISTRIBUTION OF REAL WAGES IN CHILE, 1960-1972.” Bulletin Of Latin American Research 2, no. 2 (April 1983): 17-38. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

KEDAR, CLAUDIA. 2015. “Salvador Allende and the International Monetary Fund, 1970– 1973: The Depoliticisation and Technocratisation of Cold War Relations.” Journal Of Latin American Studies 47, no. 4: 717-747. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

NAVIA, PATRICIO, and RODRIGO OSORIO. 2017. “‘Make the Economy Scream’? Economic, Ideological and Social Determinants of Support for Salvador Allende in Chile, 1970–3.” Journal Of Latin American Studies 49, no. 4: 771-797. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost.

Power, Margaret. 2008. “The Engendering of Anticommunism and Fear in Chile’s 1964 Presidential Election.” Diplomatic History 32, no. 5: 931-953. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost

Other Relevant Reading

Bray, Marjorie Woodford. 2013. “The Making of Chile: With Poems and Guns: A Personal Recollection.” Latin American Perspectives 40, no. 1: 187-200. America: History & Life, EBSCOhost.

Vladimir Lenin

Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin was born on April 22^nd 1870, and died on January 21^st 1924. He is the practical founder of communism and was the first to implement communism in a nation-state. He was heavily influenced by Karl Marx and expanded on his ideas heavily. He started the Bolshevik revolution and managed to take over the Russian government overnight in the October Revolution of 1917. Lenin’s legacy was global. Some call the Bolshevik revolution as the most influential event of the 20^th century. He is misunderstood by western society, as many view him through the lens of the Cold War. In reality, he opted for a dictatorship of the political party, selflessly making himself less powerful for the benefit of the others. Stalin, however, changed it to a dictatorship of the one, essentially ruining Lenin’s nearly perfect system.

Before Lenin’s rise to power, Russia was enduring the hardships of modernity. The Tsar was barely holding onto power, and the people did not trust the government. Lenin’s older brother was a revolutionary and highly influenced by the aristocratic ideas, and Lenin himself wanted to follow in his brother’s foot steps. His older brother was executed for being a revolutionary, and this changed Lenin’s views from moderate to radical, as this even shaped Lenin’s path as a full-time Marxist revolutionary. Marxism is from the ideas of Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels in the pamphlet The Communist Manifesto and was a highly distributed piece of literature in Lenin’s time, and as a young man he studied this work almost religiously. It outlined what the proletariats (the working class) must do to overthrow the bourgeoisie (the middle working class). Lenin interpreted this work and joined many circles and political parties in which he would write and speak about the work of Marx. Later in life, when he decided to become a full time revolutionary, he formed a group of supporters known as the Bolsheviks, who were made predominantly of Marxist and other communist support groups. Lenin even created propaganda aimed at outside powers to spread his influence on a global scale. His propaganda appealed to the soldiers, farmers and factory workers of Russia who were, as he read in Marx and Engels book, extremely powerful as a political army. After building up so much support he returned to Russia during WWI as Russia was being decimated by the 2^nd Reich, who in turn was funding Lenin to undermine Russia’s exterior war efforts. When he returned he lead the Red October Revolution, the 2^nd of a pair of revolutions in 1917, this one would end up being an overnight coup d’état, literally walking into the government buildings and claiming they were the government. It somehow worked, and Lenin was now the first communist leader of Russia.

This revolution did not sit well with supporters of the Tsarist government, causing the Russian civil war shortly after the takeover. It was between Lenin’s Red Army and the monarchical supportive White Army. This war lasted 6 years and ended in a decisive Russian victory, creating the USSR, all under the rule of Lenin. It is impossible to talk about Lenin without thinking of his so-called partner Joseph Stalin, who was highly influential during the civil war. He forged military alliances, including a triumvirate against his rival Leon Trotsky. Lenin and Stalin’s relationship was almost purely political, as their characters seemed to clash with one another. Lenin died shortly after the civil war, and did not want Stalin to become the leader of the USSR, but ultimately, he was put into power.

When Lenin died in 1924 his legacy lived on well past his life, and will possibly even outlive those of the next century. Historians view him as one of the most influential figures of the 20^th century, and as the 100-year celebration of the October Revolution just behind us, it seems appropriate to reflect on the impact of Lenin and communism itself. Lenin created the first working communist state and in doing so started a legacy carried on still today by democratic-communist countries such as China, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos and Cuba. Communism is alive today because of Lenin and his Bolshevik Revolution, and the legacy he created shaped the world as we know it now, from the Cold War to the current relations the West have with Communist countries.

Torre Spina

Works Cited

Krupskaya, Nadezhda. “How Lenin Studied Marx.” Marxist Archives, Marxist Writers Archive, http://www.marxists.org/archive/krupskaya/works/howleninstudiedmarx.htm.

Luxemburg, Rosa. The Russian Revolution, and Leninism Or Marxism?. University of Michigan Press, 1961.

Resis, Albert. “Vladimir Lenin.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 30 Sept. 2016, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Vladimir-Lenin.

Sandvick, Clinton. “How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?” Daily History, 24 Apr. 2017, dailyhistory.org/How_did_Vladimir_Lenin_Rise_To_Power%3F.

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Russian Civil War.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 3 Jan. 2017, http://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil -War.

Tismaneanu, Vladimir. “Leninist legacies, pluralist dilemmas.” Journal of Democracy 18.4 (2007): 34-39.

Weissman, Suzi. “The Legacy of Vladimir Lenin.” Jacobin Magazine, Bhaskar Sunkara, 25 May 2017, http://www.jacobinmag.com/2017/05/dilemmas-vladimir-lenin-tariq-ali-russian -revolution-democracy.

Other Readings

State and revolution – Vladimir Lenin

The Communist Manifesto – Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels

Karl Marx

May 5, 1818 – March 14, 1883

If you have ever taken an economics class, you may have heard of a man named Karl Marx. Karl Marx was an influential German political philosopher and was often referred to as “the Aristotle of the nineteenth century” (Karl Marx; his life and work, p. 322). Marx is well known for his contributions to philosophical and economic thought and for helping to shape the political structure of the modern world (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Not only did Marx’s philosophy influence social and economic thought, it also had a great influence in literature and arts. (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Marx opposed of previous philosophical tradition and philosophers such as Johann Fichte and George Hegel (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Karl Marx’s work was controversial and angered many people. As a result, he was expelled from many countries and cities. Marx was ordered by the government to leave Germany, Paris, Brussels, and Cologne (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Marx and his family were ordered to leave Cologne in 1849 and moved to London where he and his family lived the rest of their lives (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). In June of 1843, Marx got married to Jenny and later moved to Paris in October where he met fellow German philosopher, Friedrich Engels (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Together, they came up with Marxism – “a social, political and economic philosophy that examines the effect of capitalism on labour, productivity and economic development” (Investopedia 2017). They also worked together on several books such as The Holy Family, The German Ideology and The Communist Manifesto (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator, p. 17). Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ work on Marxism have lead to Communist Party revolutions in many countries such as Russia and the People’s Republic of China (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). Leaving Germany to live in Paris drastically changed Marx’s views on social problems, which can be seen in his 1844 economic-philosophical manuscripts (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator, p. 15). He began to see that political issues arise from class division and oppression (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator, p. 15).  Marx also came up with the theory of historical materialism which explains that society consists of a base and superstructure (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator, p. 25). Marx claimed that the base is the society’s means of production and the distribution of their produced wealth (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). However, the social superstructure is a lot more diverse than the base. The social superstructure consisted of law, science, religion and philosophy (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator p. 26). Marx and Engels also claimed that social revolution can result from conflict between forces and relations of production (Karl Marx: The Revolutionary as Educator p. 26). Karl Marx was known to use the term alienation very frequently to describe the separation of things that should naturally be together (Karl Marx p. 3). Marx used alienation most often to describe the separation between workers and their full potential as a human being (Barry, Thomas F. 2016). He explains that workers are so committed to their job that they don’t have time to develop other facets of their personality (Barry, Thomas F. 2016).

Christina Wu

Works cited:

Barry, Thomas F. “Karl Marx.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia (January 2016): Research Starters, EBSCOhost (accessed November 12, 2017).

Small, Robin. 2014. “Karl Marx The Revolutionary as Educator.” BASE, EBSCOhost (accessed November 12, 2017).

Spargo, John. 1910. “Karl Marx.” HathiTrust, EBSCOhost (accessed November 12, 2017).

Staff, Investopedia. “Marxism.” Investopedia. August 26, 2010. Accessed November 12, 2017. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp.

Wood, Allen W. Karl Marx. London: Routledge, 2012.

Lu Xun (Zhou Shuren)

September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936

Zhou Shuren, better known by his pen name Lu Xun, is popularly known as the most important Chinese writer of the 20th Century. He was best known for his works criticizing Chinese politics and society. Shuren was born in Shaoxing, China, and had a challenging childhood as apart of a once prestigious family in decline. This was largely due to the imprisonment of his grandfather, a government official accused of fraud, quickly followed by his father becoming sick and bedridden.1 After his basic education he went on to study modern medicine in Japan, hoping to bring his knowledge back to China for the betterment of his country. However Zhou quickly became disillusioned by the practice, deciding that China needed social change and ‘spiritual healing’ more so than anything else. He switched his studies to writing and literature, beginning his famed career.

Zhou Shuren’s career began by making occasional entries to Chinese student journals, before taking a job as a teacher in his hometown, and stopping writing for a time. This was followed by a job as a government official, where he took up his writing again. It was at this time that Zhou wrote his first great work for a radical Chinese magazine, at the request of his friend. A Madman’s Diary was Zhou Shuren’s first short story, written as a criticism of Confucianism and Chinese society. The rest of his career would be filled by a large number of notable works before his death in 1936.

Zhou Shuren’s works are of significant historical impact, both in Chinese political and social movements, as well as over the literary world of China. The societal impact that Zhou had was largely through his criticisms of Chinese society, and Confucianism. As an ethical, political, and social framework, among other things, Confucianism had shaped the social structure of China for thousands of years, and around which surrounded everything from the Chinese family

1 Xun, L. & Lyell, W. A. (1990). Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and Other Stories.

structure, to education. One of the frameworks that had been allowed by Confucianism was feudalism, a social structure that depends on a mass lower class required to devote their labour to a lordship. Zhou Shuren’s condemnation of Confucianism and feudalism in the aforementioned A Madman’s Diary was through the comparison of those aspects of Chinese society to being cannibalistic. This work became incredibly influential among movements in China seeking cultural change, most notably the New Youth Movement.

Zhou Shuren has also had a significant impact on Chinese political movements, both of his time and after his death. Many people in China had become embittered with the way their country was exploited by foreign powers through its ports, and disliked the manner in which the new Chinese Republic, established following the Xinhai revolution, dealt with them. This largely sparked a call for radical political change to accompany the cultural movements that were already occurring. Shuren turned to Marxism, and became an influential writer for Marxist, Communist, and Leftist movements across China. Despite his influence over these movements, however, Zhou chose to never actually join the Chinese Marxist movement, rather choosing to simply sympathize with them, and support their organization through writing. Following his death, Zhou Shuren was hailed by the Communist Party of China, with his work used selectively to support various aspects of their beliefs. Mao Zedong, first leader of Communist China, referred to Zhou as the most influential writer of modern China.

Along with his impact on Chinese society, Zhou also had a significant impact on Chinese literature, largely popularizing the short story in modern China.

Zhou Shuren had many significant impacts throughout his life, most of which greatly influenced him and his writings. It is popularly thought that his severely negative perception of Chinese culture was largely shaped by the deterioration of his family, as well as the occurrence of significant upheaval during his youth, most notably the Boxer Rebellion. It is believed that these are where the ideas for works such as A Madman’s Diary and The True Story of Ah Q

originally derived from. Other major influences which occurred whilst Zhou was active were things such as the Xinhai Revolution, which resulted in the Republic of China, a government which he seriously disagreed with. Zhou Shuren was both influential over, and influenced by, the May Fourth Movement, which fought against the presence of imperialist powers in China. Much of hist later work was also heavily affected by the deaths of some of his students during the Shanghai massacre of 1927. In all, Shuren lived at a time of great uncertainty in China, something which had a significant impact over him throughout his life, and his career.

George Hope-Fraser

 

1. Xun, L. & Lyell, W. A. (1990). Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and Other Stories. Honolulu: Hawaii University Press.

2. Heuters, T. (2005). Bringing the World Home: Appropriating the West in Late Qing and Early Republican China. Honolulu: Hawaii University Press.

3. Goldman, M. (1982). The Political Use of Lu Xun. :The China Quarterly.
4. Lee, L. O. (1985). Lu Xun and His Legacy. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Walter Benjamin

July 1892- Sept 1940

Walter Benjamin, a German Jew, lived in the unluckiest time and place: Germany, at the turn of the 20th Century. History could not have chosen a more unfavourable time for Benjamin to be born; combining his race, religion and radical ideas with cultural change and growing hatred against Jews. Benjamin was a writer and philosopher who committed suicide in 1940 while trying to escape the Nazi’s. His ideas were a mix of marxism, German idealism, Romanticism, and Jewish mysticism. He was a devout religious man, believing Judaism to be the highest form of spirituality, and opposing what he called “capitalist religion” (Robinson, Andrew). His ideas opposing modernity and capitalism were profound, and have added to marxist ideology. He was friends with famous figures such as Theodor Adorno and Hannah Arendt. From 1933-1940, he spent his days exiled in France, where he produced some of his most famous pieces before his death (Wolfe, Ross.).

Benjamin felt alienation from German writers, and instead tended towards the culture and ideas of France thinkers (Benjamin, Walter et al.). France was emerging from the tides of revolution, switching power throughout the 1800s from free Republic to ruled Empire. In the late 19th Century, French thinkers were moving more towards Realism, and away from Romanticism. However, Benjamin would have felt more at home amongst the Romantics and Symbolists, who valued human emotion and traditional religious values. He also wrote about the “concept of criticism in German Romanticism,” combining ideas from the Enlightenment and Romanticism (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin).

In Walter Benjamin’s “Theses on History,” he explains marxism as a response to capitalism that has become a religion in France. He saw how capitalism changed the very fabric of cultural life and even the experience of time. Walter’s idea of homogeneous empty time occurs when moments are viewed as equal and interchangeable along a continuum. Empty time lacks any differentiation and special moments that give life meaning (Robinson, Andrew). This form of time is a result of capitalism, and creates an empty existence with no meaning, as labour and commodities are continually measured, used and replaced. Benjamin contrasts this empty existence with the jetztzeit, or “now time,” that exists in “messianic time” (Robinson, Andrew). In messianic time, all of history is compressed into a single moment in time, and real truth can be seen. Benjamin relates this to social movements and revolutions, as all past failed struggles are fulfilled in one messianic moment of redemption. History can only be understood through the lens of immediacy and redemption (Robinson, Andrew).

This was Benjamin’s philosophical reasoning for his marxist views on revolution. His ideas are such a wild mix of religious, political and romantic ideas. Reading his work transports one immediately to the social context in which he lived, yet his ideas transcend time. Benjamin’s writing itself is descriptive and vivid, you can see what he saw. For example, Benjamin starts his text, Berlin Childhood Around 1900, by a vivid description of his childhood home:

“The caryatids… may have [sung] a lullaby beside that cradle- a song containing little of what later awaited me, but nonetheless surrounding the theme through which the air of the courtyards has forever remained intoxicating to me… and it is precisely this air that sustains the images and allegories which preside over my thinking, just as the caryatids, from the heights of their loggias, preside over the courtyards of Berlin’s West End.” (Walter, Bullock, and Jennings. )

He switches in this quote from past to present, pulling the air of the courtyards throughout time and portraying his childhood innocence and adult awakening, connected by a common theme of the caryatids. In the same way, he views history as connecting through time with a common thread of revolution and messianic redemption.

What he considered his greatest work, left unfinished when he died, was the Arcades Project (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin). It was a series of observations on the Paris Arcades, the beautiful glass arches that cased the products of modernity and technological advances of his time (Schwartz, Vanessa R.). He used this project to portray the meaninglessness of bourgeois life, and communicate his marxist ideas. Benjamin did not view this collection as merely observations, but a blueprint for the ideal city, and wrote in a letter that he wished to apply his observations to the city (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin). He always considered his work more important than even his life, demonstrated by how he lugged a suitcase of writings over the mountains when trying to escape from the Nazi’s (Limone, Noa). His tragic death left many of his pieces unfinished, but as his friends and colleagues sorted through the writings he had left, it was only then that the world saw the true brilliance of this philosopher and his ideas became famous.

Veronica Klassen

Works Cited

Ball, David. “Walter Benjamin.” Ambit, no. 185, 2006, pp. 22–22. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/44336533.

Benjamin, Walter, Marcus Paul Bullock, and Michael William Jennings. (2003). Walter 

Benjamin: Selected Writings Volume 3 1935-1938. Harvard University Press.

Benjamin, Walter, Howard Eiland, and Kevin McLaughlin. The Arcades Project. Harvard

University Press, 1999.

Cohen, Josh. “Phenomenologies of Mourning: Gillian Rose and Walter Benjamin.” Women: A 

Cultural Review, vol. 9, 1998, pp. 47–61., doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09574049808578334.

Clark, T.J. “Reservations of the Marvellous.” London Review of Books, London Review of

Books, 21 June 2000, www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n12/tj-clark/reservations-of-the- marvellous.

Jeffries, Stuart. “Walter Benjamin: A Critical Life Review – Gambler, Womaniser, Thinker.”

The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 7 Aug. 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/07/walter-benjamin-critical-life-howard- eiland-michael-w-jennings-review.

Limone, Noa. “Chronicling Walter Benjamin’s Final Hours.” Haaretz.com, 7 Apr. 2013,

www.haaretz.com/chronicling-walter-benjamin-s-final-hours-1.449897.

Robinson, Andrew. “Walter Benjamin: Messianism and Revolution – Theses on

History.”Ceasefire Magazine, 30 Nov. 2013,

ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/walter-benjamin-messianism-revolution-theses-history/.

Schwartz, Vanessa R. “Walter Benjamin for Historians.” The American Historical Review, vol. 106, no. 5, 2001, pp. 1721–1743. JSTOR,  www.jstor.org/stable/2692744.

Wolfe, Ross. “Walter Benjamin’s Writings in German and in English.” The Charnel-House, 9 Jan. 2017,thecharnelhouse.org/2015/12/10/walter-benjamins-writings-in-german- and-in-english/.

Other Relevant Reading

Gilloch, Graeme. “Three Biographical Studies of Walter Benjamin — Walter Benjamin. Eine

Biographie by Werner Fuld / Spinne Im Eigenen Netz. Walter Benjamin: Leben Und Werk by Momme Brodersen / Benjaminiana Edited by Hans Puttnies and Gary Smith.” Telos, no. 91, 1992, pp. 173, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS); Politics Collection; Sociology Collection, libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/214365417?accountid=12347

Wohlfarth, Irving. No-Man’s-Land: On Walter Benjamin’s ‘Destructive Character’ in Walter 

Benjamin’s Philosophy, Benjamin, Andrew (Ed). Routledge, 1994, Philosopher’s Index,

libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/42793130?accountid=12347.

Joseph Stalin

December 18th, 1878- March 5th, 1953

Dictator of the Union of Soviet Social Republics (from 1929 to 1953), Joseph Stalin- born name Josef Vissarionovich Dzugashvili- was able to transform the Soviet Union from a peasant and poor society into an industrial and military superpower (Hingley, 2016). Although creating a superpower, Stalin ruled by terror and millions died during his reign, ultimately leading to approximately 20 million deaths during his rule.

In Stalin’s early life, he obtained a scholarship to attend a seminary, which while there he started reading the work of social philosopher Karl Marx. He became interested in the revolutionary movement against Russia. He was kicked out of school in 1899 for “too many missed exams”- although it is argued it was for revolutionary action, his mother and the school argued other reasons. Once he left school, he not long after decided to become an underground political agitator. Stalin joined the wing of the Bolsheviks which eventually led to involvement in many criminal activities. Eventually he was subjected to imprisonment and exile to Siberia (Hingley, 2016).

In the 1920’s, Stalin had launched multiple “5-year plans” which were intended to transform the Soviet Union.  There was a series of three 5-year plans.

His plans were mainly centred on government control of the economy (which included government control of farms, or, “collectivization”). Any farmers that did not cooperate with Stalin were shot or exiled as a form of punishment (Hingley, 2016). Due to the collectivization, widespread famine occurred throughout the Soviet Union. Although the collectivization did not produce the economic results that were wanted, it was justified in of itself and can be seen as one of Stalin’s greatest achievements during his reign (Hingley, 2016). During this time, Stalin was still able to maintain export levels by shipping food out of the country, however rural residents were still dying by the thousands during this. Urbanization was brought up throughout the USSR during his rule and was continued even after his death. Due to Stalins policies, the agricultural and forestry engagement dropped from 56% to 42% within a span of 11 years (McKenney, 2017).

Stalin encouraged the spying amongst citizens as this way he was able to see who was obeying him and who was not. Stalin took away the right to free press, outside influence as well as dissent (Hingley, 2016).

During the Great Terror (1930’s), members of his cabined and government were targeted by Stalin himself if he found them a suspect of the danger of the ant-communist movement (Hingley, 2016). It was strongly encouraged during this time to turn citizens in. Anyone during this time who was suspected of being apart of the anti-communist movement was punished in the form of torture, exile or death.

Stalin was the mask behind instituting the Great Purge which was a series of campaigns whose goal was to rid the Communist party, military and other divisions of the Soviet society which were considered a “threat” to Stalin (McKenney, 2017). During the eve WWII, Stalin and Adolf Hitler signed a non-aggression act. However, in 1941 Germany broke the pact and invaded the USSR. Eventually Stalin led to the USSR defeating Germany from 1941-1945 and was able to extend Soviet controls through Eastern Europe (Hingley, 2016). Stalin joined allied powers with the United States and Great Britain once Hitler had invaded the Soviet Union (McKenney, 2017).

In order to stop German invasion, a “scorched earth” policy was created by Stalin (Hingley, 2016). This policy entailed burning all farms fields and villages in the path that would give German soldiers the upper hand in their invasions (as they would live off the land). Stalin had done this in hopes of the German supplies running low. Unfortunately, although strategic, this policy resulted in destruction of homes and livelihoods among the Russian population (Hingley, 2016).

Stalin has an elaborate bureaucratized administrative team which interlinked the communist party, ministries, trade unions, political police, armed forces etc (Hingley, 2016). Throughout Stalins reign and following his death, these parties still continues to benefit the management levels within the Society society, and for the most part, the individuals who controlled the levels throughout Stalins reign continued to do so after his death (McKenney, 2017). Thanks to Stalin, the USSR was introduced to the Atomic bomb which led to Stalin launching his own nuclear weapons program (Hingley, 2016).

Throughout his reign, Stalin’s actions could have been strongly influenced by the revolutions, wars and battles all going on during this time. Communism was on the rise, it was frowned upon to read into it, which as a kid when he initially started reading Marx’s works, would have made it all the more interesting to read (to see what all the fuss was about). When Marx’s ideas about and contested, Stalin was still at an age where his frame of mind could easily be impacted and changed. Seeing different allies and enemies as well as influential powers. Stalin created great historical significance among the USSR, and although historians still argue over what exactly that may be, we can see that his significance was mainly in military efforts. He provided the USSR with a strong and strategic military. He also gave many policies that impacted and shaped current policies.

Kelsey Loft

Works Cited

Hingley, Ronald Francis. “Joseph Stalin.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 7 Dec. 2016, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Stalin.

 

Stephanie L. McKinney, PhD, Contributing Writer. “How Did Stalin Build His Cult of Personality?” ThoughtCo, 3 Mar. 2017, http://www.thoughtco.com/joseph-stalin-1779902.

Che Guevara

June 14, 1928 – October 9, 1967

Ernesto “Che” Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina to a middle-class family. Guevara was a Marxist revolutionary, along with being an author and physician. His countenance has become a symbol for rebellion, due to his involvement, and prominent position in the Cuban revolution. It is also due to his important role in the Cuban revolution that Che Guevara has become one of the most famous and widely known revolutionaries in all of world history. Guevara was named in Time Magazine’s “100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century.” Even a photo taken of Guevara entitled “Guerrillero Heroico” has been called “the most famous photograph in the world and a symbol of the 20th century”. Guevara’s name, ideologies, and also his very image has become a cornerstone for revolutionary thinkers in the modern era; those who believe exploitation and injustices can be cast away through revolutionary means look to Guevara for inspiration. Guevara showed himself to be a very prominent leader within Fidel Castro’s ‘26th of July Movement’ and was also a trusted advisor to Castro, who was the leader of the Cuban Revolution. Guevara was granted Cuban citizenship on January 9th, 1959 and was quickly recognized as one of the most influential members of Castro’s regime. With the support of the new Cuban Government, Guevara undertook many missions, both commercial, and diplomatic. Che Guevara is often regarded as one of the pioneers of Guerilla warfare, however Guevara did not emanate the key points of Guerilla warfare. Guevara merely adopted the principles of Guerrilla warfare to better suit the Latin American environment. The United States even used the principles laid down by Guevara in his book Che Guevara on Guerrilla Warfare as an anti-Guerilla warfare training manual for the American military. Che Guevara and his work have had an immense influence on the development of social and political thought in Latin America. The ideas which Guevara held have inspired many of the radical groups within Latin America to mirror the ‘Cuban Example’ and so they took off into the countryside or mountains, just as Guevara and Castro did. Following his death in 1967, Che Guevara remained a very prominent face and name on a worldwide scale. Admirer’s of Guevara remember him as an idealistic man, dedicated to the revolution; however, critics of Guevara see him as a mentally unstable, bloodthirsty man, who was a failure in all of his endeavours. Arguably the most valuable thing left behind by Guevara were the lessons learned through the example of his unsuccessful campaign in Bolivia. This campaign demonstrated that in order for Guerilla tactics to be successful they must be in

cooperation with local rural communities, and also that Guerilla tactics can be susceptible to “regular troops trained in counterinsurgency tactics.” As a trained physician, author, and Marxist revolutionary, Che Guevara became one of the most prominent figures in the Cuban revolution, and also a symbol for many revolutionaries within Latin America and other places around the globe. To the present day Che Guevara remains one of the most recognizable faces of rebellion, and one of the most widely known faces and names in all of history.

 

Gary Ghag

Bibliography

Crain, David A. “Che Guevara” Salme Press Biographical Encyclopedia (2017)

Harris, Richard L. “Che Guevara: A Biography” ABC-CLIO, LLC (2011)

Scauzillo, Robert J. “Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara: A Research Bibliography.” L atin American Research Review 5, no. 2 (1970)

 

Other Relevant Reading
Jazeera, Al. “Who was Che Guevara?” Cuba News | Al Jazeera. (2017)

http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/che-guevara-171008111523876.html. James, Daniel. “Che Guevara: A Biography” Cooper Square Press. (2001)

Georges Sorel

Georges Sorel

2nd November, 1847 to 29th August, 1922

 

Georges Sorel was a French writer and engineer who was an outspoken Socialist that drew heavily upon Marxist ideals. His most famous work was called “Reflections of Violence,” and was published in 1906. Sorel is best know for his extreme interpretation and views on Marxism; which included heavily anti-elitist, anti-deterministic, and anti-Semitic thoughts and ideals.

One of Sorel’s heaviest concentration of followers, and thus one of his largest areas of influence was in prewar Italy, with Mussolini and the other Fascists there. It should be pointed out however, that even within this group, their views on Sorel’s rhetoric and their implementation of his ideals was not consistent (Roth. 30). Sorel first began expressing interest in Italy’s social and political workings after reading articles written by Cesare Lombroso about the psychology of what he called political crime. Although he had announced his conversion to Marxism a few years earlier, as Sorel continued his discourse with Italian writers and theorists, he eventually started a critique of Marxism, which he began to call social poetry. At this point his ties to Italy grew even stronger as he saw them as the only country that was serious in its critique of Marxism (Roth, 32). He disagreed most fundamentally about Marxism when he introduced his concept of Myth, which he identified as a method for converting what he saw as typical Marxian individualistic tendencies into more social ones (Ton, 336). All of this led to Mussolini’s adherence to and expressed admiration for Sorel’s “catastrophic revolution” and “morale of producers” as he called them. The historical significance of Sorel influencing the mind of one of the world’s most infamous dictators to the point of public acclamation should be clear.

Another of Sorel’s ideals that gained traction and influence in certain countries was his antisemitism preaching. One class of people in particular was unwelcome in the Sorelian community, and that was financiers, who according to Sorel, were an unproductive group who employed the rationalist ideology of democracy to dupe the French classes (Antliff, 56). This led Sorel’s follower’s to concur that Jews were immoral beings who lived off the hard work of others, especially after his antisemitism reached its highest point in 1910 (Antliff, 57). The most openly announced and public demonstration of Sorel’s views on this matter was the opera, in The Legend of St Christopher, where the saint is fighting a corrupt King of Gold, who is represented by a Jew (Antliff, 58).

From this brief look into Sorel’s ideals and the following they gathered we can see just how influential he became in his time. Because of the messages he was trying to spread, it aided the rhetoric of dictators that would arise in various countries in the next few years, particularly in Italy. 2 of his main ideas were discussed here as they pertain to the world state at that time and in the years to come, namely his fostering of extreme socialism that encouraged blameless violence, and his preaching of antisemitism, which would come to a disastrous head only a short while later.

 

Lucas Bongers

 

Works Cited

1. Roth, Jack J. “The Roots of Italian Fascism: Sorel and Sorelismo.”The Journal of Modern History 39, no. 1 (1967): 30-45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1877666.
2. James Jay Hamil Ton. “Georges Sorel and the Inconsistencies of a Bergsonian Marxism.”Political Theory 1, no. 3 (1973): 329-40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/190592.
3. Antliff, Mark. “The Jew as Anti-Artist: Georges Sorel, Anti-Semitism, and the Aesthetics of Class Consciousness.”Oxford Art Journal 20, no. 1 (1997): 50-67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1360715.

Utopianism

Utopianism is an ideology where all aspects of society are perfect or ideal⁵. The term ‘Utopia’ was first coined by a lawyer, statesman, writer, and saint named Thomas More (born 1478) as the title of one of his books. This book Utopia, published in 1517 in Latin, described an island where there was a perfect set of social, legal and political systems. This society was pressured to be diligent and pure through supervision¹. It was either written as a way to object the reformation of the church^1,2 or to comment on English society². The word ‘Utopia’ itself means “no place” in Greek^1,4,6. Although the term was first used in the 14th century, the idea of a Utopia had existed for a much longer time. The Utopian society can be traced back to The Republic in 380 BC where Utopia was described as an egalitarian society where both men and women ruled and, where there were no family units. In another example, Writer Christine de Pizan published The Book of the City of Ladies, where women were free from patriarchy. In medieval times, Utopia was the Land of Cockaygne. There was gender equality, free love, no work and no authority figures. By the 1610s, the term ‘Utopia’ became a label for any perfect place. The ideas of Utopian writing, however, were conflicting. There was the version of Utopia where people followed old traditions and a futuristic version where science was furthered pursued. Two examples highlight the different interpretations of Utopia: Cromwell’s Puritan Revolution and Francis Bacon’s ‘New Atlantis’. During other time periods, ‘Utopia’ teetered between communistic and completely liberal. Although there was a decrease in Utopian writings and applications in the 1700s, in the 1800s a Utopian figure named Robert Owen arose; he made an effort to improve the living conditions of the people near him (through distribution of land and educating those people on how to farm). His works can be considered the roots for the present Britain’s National Trust¹. Eventually, industrialization and scientific progress came to the scene and people began to believe that Utopianism was achievable; it was also thought to have reached its peak⁷. However, ‘Utopia’ did have its critics. Karl Marx, who deemed Utopianism as a rival to his Marxism, critiqued it, saying it could become a distraction from what really needed to be done³. The irony was that Marxism’s origins came from Utopian thinking⁴. Ultimately, the history of the 20th century made it seem like Utopianism was a project destined for failure⁴. Utopianism is now generally considered to involve ideas about privately-owned property, gender relations and government⁸. Today, Utopianism exists in the minds of people in more subtle ways. Some leaders and businessmen try to build a Utopia in the workplace. Others invest in technological advancements¹. Utopia is continuously being contemplated and experimented with.

Min Jee Kim

 

Works Cited and Footnote

1. Hodgkinson, Tom. “How Utopia shaped the world.” BBC. Published 6 October 2016, Accessed 15 October 2017. http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160920-how-utopia-shaped-the-world

2. Hood, David James Sarty. “A Place Called ‘nowhere’: Towards an Understanding of St. Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’.” Order No. MR61327, University of Ottawa (Canada), Published 2009, Accessed 15 October 2017. http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/527904725?accountid=12347.

3. Jones, G. R. “`The Kingdom of Heaven: Task Or Dream?’ Karl Marx’s Critique of Utopianism and the Theology of Gustavo Gutierrez.” Order No. U030932, University of Cambridge (United Kingdom), Published 1991, Accessed 15 October 2017. http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/301491233?accountid=12347.

4. Marche, Stephen. “Why We Need to Believe in Utopias More Than Ever.” Esquire. Published 21 May 2015, Accessed 15 October 2017. http://www.esquire.com/news-politics/a35156/utopianism-history-future/

5. Merriam-Webster. “Utopia.” Merriam-Webster. Accessed 15 October 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/utopia

6. Online Etymology. “Utopia.” Accessed 15 October 2017. http://www.etymonline.com

7. Wu, Yan Xiao (邬晓燕). “Construction and Deconstruction of Scientific Utopianism.” Order No. H382244, Renmin University of China (People’s Republic of China), Published 2008, Accessed 15 October 2017. http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/1026920565?accountid=12347.

8. University of Nottingham. “Research: Utopianism, Realism and Ideal Theory, Utopian and Dystopian Political Thought.” University of Nottingham. Accessed 15 October 2017. https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/concept/research/utopianismrealismidealtheory.aspx

 

Communism

Communism is an economic and political philosophy.  Some of the major ideas behind communism include no social classes, no private property, and government control of an equal distribution of money.  Communism was first introduced in German writer Karl Marx’s The Communist Manifesto in 1849.  Karl Marx’s idea of communism is that the upper class would no longer exist, freeing the lower class from tyranny.  There are many forms of communism, such as Marxism, Leninism, Anarchist communism, and Christian communism.  The most notable example of Communism was the Soviet Union, which operated under a communist government from 1922 to 1991.

Communism played a major role in the 20^th century.  In 1917, Vladimir Lenin led the October Revolution in Russia.  This revolution led to the establishment of the first communist state, the Soviet Union.  After the death of Lenin, the regime of Josef Stalin caused the deaths of up to 60 million people.  After World War Two, the Cold War began.  Hostilities between the Capitalist West and the Communist east threatened sending the world into a nuclear war.  15 countries became part of the communist Soviet Union and 11 other countries worldwide have been under communist governments at one point.  It is estimated that over 100 million people have died as a result of communism.  The history of communism can illuminate the history of North Korea, a very relevant issue today.  North Korea is one of 5 current communist countries in the world.  The history of communism can also help to illuminate why Western countries operate under capitalist economies and how specifically in America, even socialism is looked at as a major evil.

The first key historical figure of communism is Karl Marx who in 1848 wrote The Communist Manifesto, which is one of the world’s most influential political documents.  In the Communist Manifesto, Marx summaries his theories of how communism will replace capitalism, and is the founding document of communism.  Vladimir Lenin, who was the Chairman of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924, was inspired by the ideas of Karl Marx to lead Russia into a communist revolution.  A key historical event relating to communism was the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.  During this crisis, a 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union ensued over missiles found in Cuba.  This crisis is considered the closest that the world has come to a nuclear war.  A key attacker of communism has been the United States, the main opposition of the Soviet Union during the Cold War.  The United States has always been very anti-communist and has fought wars to prevent the spread of communism such as the Vietnam War and the Korean War.  A major anti-communist figure in America would be Ronald Reagan, who was president from 1981 to 1989.  Reagan labelled the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and many of his actions are believed to have caused the Soviet Union to collapse.

Cam Ramolla

 

Works Citied 

Gamble, Andrew. “Karl Marx.” RSA Journal, vol. 150, no. 5509, 2003, pp. 58–58. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41379432.

BRENNAN, MARY C. “THE COLD WAR WORLD.” Wives, Mothers, and the Red Menace: Conservative Women and the Crusade against Communism, University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 2008, pp. 13–30. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1d8h9s3.5.

Kamiński, Bartłomiej, and Karol Sołtan. “The Evolution of Communism.” International Political Science Review / Revue Internationale De Science Politique, vol. 10, no. 4, 1989, pp. 371–391. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1601080.