Albert Camus

November 7, 1913-January 4, 1960

Albert Camus was a French novelist, essayist and playwright. He was born on November 7, 1913 in a small Algerian city of Mondovi to Lucien and Catherine Camus. Albert Camus had a quite difficult childhood. He was raised in a poor family and suffered two big losses with his father dying in World War I and his mother suffering a stroke which left her disabled. Tough conditions which Camus had to go through in his youth taught him to value independence and personal responsibility. Camus did very well in grammar school and developed a profound interest in philosophy and literature in the prestigious school Grand Lycée of Algiers. Before his move to Nazi occupied France in 1942 where he joined the French Resistance, he worked as a journalist in Algiers and became involved with a theatrical troupe there, first as an actor and then as a playwright and director. In 1938 he temporarily joined Algerian Communist Party, but he soon lost his belief in communism which later greatly influenced his political opinions. (Campion, p.1) In 1957 Albert Camus was granted a Nobel prize for Literature at the age of 43. (Royal, p.26) He died in a car accident on January 4th, 1960. (Leroux, p.204) Before his death, Camus wrote numerous works that still fascinate readers around the world. Major works of his such as The Stranger, 1946; The Myth of Sisyphus, 1942; The Plague 1947; and The Rebel, 1951 were published in the 40s and 50s, during the outbreaks of Nazism, Stalinism and colonial exploitation which had a very important context in Camus’s works. The Stranger is a first-person narrative in which the main character, Meursault, an Algerian office worker, is alienated from society. Raymond, a close friend of Meursault is a pimp.  Meursault kills an Arab who has been following Raymond and although Meursault is obviously guilty, he never receives a fair trial due to corrupt lawyer and the judge. This novel ridicules flaws of French judicial system and legal injustices committed by the Nazis in occupied France. (Campion, p.1) The Myth of Sisyphus is based on Greek mythology where Sisyphus was punished for eternity to push a large rock to the top of a mountain and every time he reached the summit, his rock would roll back into the valley. Camus imagined that Sisyphus was being punished because he had rebelled against the power of the gods and despite his absurd task, he would never give up and repeat his task repeatedly. Many readers see Sisyphus as a metaphor of the French Resistance against Nazis which Camus was a part of. (Campion, p.1) His novel The Plague is considered the most profound reflection on the evils of Nazism. Novel takes place in the walled Algerian city of Oran where the plague suddenly breaks out and the city is closed to prevent the plague from spreading to other cities. It is clear that the plague in this novel symbolizes Nazism and the closed walls of the city symbolize the closed borders of the countries occupied by Nazis. (Campion, p.1) Another work by Camus that worth being mentioned is The Rebel. The Rebel ranges widely over culture, politics and society and exposing evils of communists and fascists. In The Rebel he also criticized totalitarian regime and “crimes of logic” which were encouraged to be committed by Western intellectuals. (Royal, p.28) Albert Camus’s value of personal integrity and independence along with historical circumstances during his time such as Nazi occupation of France and French colonial rule in Algeria made him provide a deep insight on totalitarianism, colonial exploitation and political abuse. Camus’s ethical and political beliefs that he expressed throughout his works still inspire his readers to this day.

Valerii Kolesnikov

Works Cited

Adams, Harry Baker. “Dialogue between Theology and Modern Humanists: The Contribution of Albert Camus.” Encounter, vol. 26, no. 4, 1965, pp. 434-444. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0000704312&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Campion, Edmund J. “Albert Camus.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88801288&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Leroux, Georges. “Between Sunshine and Shadow: The Legacy of Albert Camus.” Queen’s Quarterly, no. 2, 2010, EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.233126326&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Royal, Robert. “Camus between God and Nothing: Robert Royal Reflects on the Enduring Significance of Albert Camus One Hundred Years After His Birth.” First Things, vol. 239, Jan. 2014, pp. 25-30. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001972658&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Zaretsky, Robert. “The Tragic Nostalgia of Albert Camus.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, no. 3, 2013, p. 55. EBSCOhost, doi:10.3167/hrrh.2013.390305.

Other Relevant Reading

Curzon-Hobson, Aidan. “Extending the Contribution of Albert Camus to Educational Thought: An Analysis of the Rebel.” Educational Philosophy & Theory, vol. 46, no. 10, Sept. 2014, pp. 1098-1110. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00131857.2013.795111.

Camus, Albert. The Rebel. 1951

Camus, Albert. The Stranger. 1942

Camus, Albert. The Plague. 1947

Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus.1942

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

19 May 1881–10 November 1938

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, born Mustafa Pasha (1881-1938) was the founder of the Republic of Turkey and its first president, memorialized in Turkish culture as the father of the republic (Kissane, 2014). Born into a liberal middle-class Muslim family, Atatürk spent his early years receiving a secular schooling, later graduating top of his class from a military education founded in Western ideals and taught by Western-educated professors. This education, which stressed the importance of science and mathematics above religion, would prove to have an indelible effect upon the state Atatürk would later found (Hanioglu, 2017). After achieving minor fame for his exemplary leadership in the Gallipoli Campaign of World War One, Atatürk turned his post-war attentions to unifying resistance groups fighting against Greek imperialism and abuses of power by Entente forces (Alaranta, 2014). Though initially struggling to hold power over the Istanbul-based Sultanate, general opposition to the Sultan’s British alliance led to the legitimization of Atatürk’s Ankara-based parliament and the foundation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923 (Alaranta). During his tenure as president, Atatürk both westernized and secularized the Turkish Republic through the abolishment of the Caliphate, the closing of Sharia courts and opening of Western ones, the closing of religious schools, and the replacement of Arabic script with the Latin alphabet, among other things (Brown, 1996). He also effectually removed all political opposition and attempted to remove any association with minority identities by rallying the Turkish people behind a banner of monocultural Turkish nationalism (Kedourie, 1999).

Atatürk grew up in an Ottoman Empire which was beginning, however slowly, to embrace Western culture and ideals (Hanioglu). This empire, however, was experiencing social breakdown between the numerous ethnic factions coexisting – in order to quell dissent, statesmen attempted to introduce a kind of messianic nationalism rooted in the Ottoman Empire, though this later morphed into pan-Islamism, which exacerbated already existing religious tensions between Muslim and Christian factions (Hanigolu). The secularly educated Atatürk found this politicization of religion to be inappropriate but took note of the unifying properties of messianic nationalism, a concept which would later form the precepts of his eponymous doctrine of Kemalism (Hanioglu). French influence and thoroughly Western ideologies left over from the Ottoman reform era also made an impact upon Atatürk, who harmonized Enlightenment principles with an authoritarian regime to become a sort of enlightened despot (Alaranta).

Atatürk’s legacy lives on today through legislation and his status as something to emulate in Turkish politics (Brown). Though Islamist leaders have taken hold of power in Turkey since Atatürk’s death, his ideologies have become a quasi-system of checks and balances; especially in the military, which has thrice intervened to protect Atatürk’s state secularism (Brown). State secularism is also protected by complicated legislature which prevents the passing of laws favouring specific religious institutions, a foil of many would-be Islamist leaders (Brown). Atatürk’s persistent cult of personality has also deified him as the “ideal” leader, to whom subsequent Turkish political leaders and parties have all claimed to descend from and emulate in their policies (Brown). Atatürk’s controversial policies and removal of political opposition have permeated the current political scene, in which current President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has silenced critical journalists and often used brutal force to quell dissent and maintain political control (Timur, 2016).

Atatürk’s methods have also permeated world politics, most notably the precepts of the Nazi Party (Ihrig, 2014). After the end of WWI, a dilapidated Germany turned to Turkey as an example of which they would emulate to once again become a dominant European power (Ihrig).

 

Atatürk’s strong leadership, coupled with military might and rampant nationalism, became the ideal model of government to many far-right newspapers, and in turn, to many people who espoused these views (Ihrig). Nazi circles lauded Atatürk’s revolution as a sign that no matter how derelict a nation has become, a Volk uprising could always succeed (Ihrig). Hitler himself frequently spoke of Atatürk being a personal role model and idolized Atatürk’s movement, considering it a sign that the “analogous” Nazi movement in Germany would be successful as well (Ihrig). According to Ihrig (2014), Atatürk’s example “underlined where [the Nazis] were coming from. Yet, the ideological building blocks of this cult [of Atatürk] offered a variety of propagandistic and political tools that emphasized where they wanted to go” (146).

All in all, Atatürk’s reformations set a precedent for Westernization and created a secular state in a part of the world thoroughly entangled in Islamic traditions (Hanioglu). His impact on history is indelible, pervading not only the course of Turkish history, but also world history through his idolization by the Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler (Timur, 2016 and Ihrig, 2014). His governance further exemplifies the applications of messianic nationalism and its potent implications with regards to state nationalism, as well as the successes and difficulties of maintaining a secular state (Kedourie).

Nia Langdon

Works Cited

Asian Wall Street Journal, Sep 30, 1996. Hanioglu, S. (2017). Atatürk: An intellectual biography. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ihrig, S. (2014). Atatürk in the nazi imagination. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kedourie, S. (1999). Turkey before and after atatürk: Internal and external affairs. Portland: Frank Cass Publishers.

The Review of Politics, 76
Timur, S. (2016, July 17). Turkey cracks down as coup unravels after a deadly night. The New York Times, p. 10N.
Webster, D. (1973). The turkey of atatürk. New York: AMS Press.

Other Relevant Reading

Insight Turkey, 15
Mango, A. (2000). Atatürk: the of the founder of modern turkey. Woodstock: Overlook Press. Qureshi, M.N. (2014). Ottoman turkey, ataturk, and muslim south asia. Toronto: Oxford University Press.

Alaranta, T. (2014). Contemporary kemalism: from universal secular-humanism to extreme

Turkish nationalism. New York: Routledge Press.

Brown, Brian A. “Ataturk’s Legacy and Turkey’s Army.”

Kissane, B. (2014). Atatürk and after: Three perspectives on political change in turkey.

(2), 293-307.

Heper, M. (2013). Islam, conservatism, and democracy in turkey: Comparing turgut özal and

recep tayyip erdogan.

(2), 141-156.

Fascism

Identification:

Fascism is a form of political behaviour marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion. The 20th century totalitarian sense probably came directly from this but was influenced by the historical Roman fasces, which became the party symbol. A popular example of a Fascist leader would be Benito Mussolini. A more recent fascist leader would be Adolf Hitler.

 

Historical Significance:

Fascism is historically significant, because it was the political party responsible for the

holocaust. Adolf Hitler gained power over Germany, and turned it into a fascist state. By taking these powers, Hitler’s government was able to control factors such as inflation and unemployment that had caused considerable distress in previous years. Fascism is like no other political belief, as it includes next to no freedoms. Individuals had no freedom to protest in Hitler’s Germany. All political organizations were either banned or under the control of the Nazis. Many people think of Adolf Hitler when thinking of the term fascism, because of the horrible results of his leadership. It is estimated that over six million Jews were murdered during World War Two as a result of Hitler gaining power over Germany. Because of the horrible genocide during the second world war, it is hopeful that future leaders learn from these mistakes and do not make them again. The Holocaust set an example for just the type of leader that should not be in power. This is the reason fascist leaders are not common in the twenty first century.

 

Key Historical Proponents:

As stated before, two of the most popular political actors associated with the term fascism are Benito Mussolini, who in 1919, founded the Fasci di Combattimento–the original Fascist movement, and Adolf Hitler, a man who gained power over Germany and used that power to commit a mass genocide during the second world war. A very well known example of a fascist state, Nazi Germany, occurred during the second world war in the years 1933-1945. This all came to an end when Adolf Hitler committed suicide, and the remaining Jewish slaves were rescued from concentration camps. Adolf Hitler was not the only fascist dictator with power during World War Two. Benito Mussolini was an Italian dictator, who aspired to dominate the Mediterranean area. He was in power when Italy’s Fascist War took place. This war is generally not as well know as the holocaust, because it was overlooked. This is because postwar recollections and historical writing have tended to concentrate on the events of 1943 to 1945, rather than on the preceding period.

Jaime Byers

 

Bibliography

Bryant, Mark. “Drafting Il Duce: Mark Bryant profiles the brilliant wartime cartoonist who chronicled the actions of Italy’s Fascist leader.” History Today, vol. 59, no. 10, 2009, p. 52+. Academic OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.dop=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster&v=2.1&id=GALE %7CA209900329&it=r&asid=672742602cb46127d6a50de03995041f. Accessed 16 Oct.

2017.

Harper, Douglas. “Fascism (n.).” Index, 2017, http://www.etymonline.com/word/fascism. Accessed 15 Oct. 2017.

John Simkin. “German Fascism.” Spartacus Educational, Spartacus Educational, 2016,

spartacus-educational.com/GERfascist.htm. Accessed 16 Oct. 2017.

Magilow, Daniel H. “Counting to six million: collecting projects and Holocaust memorialization.” Jewish Social Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, 2007, p. 23+. Academic OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster&v=2.1&id=GALE %7CA179570815&it=r&asid=5277b09a7267908f9e3a16799fe8f740. Accessed 16 Oct.

2017.

Morgan, Philip. “Italy’s Fascist war: Philip Morgan explains why Italians have tended to gloss over the period 1940-43, when Mussolini fought against the Allies, preferring to remember the years of German occupation 1943-45.” History Today, vol. 57, no. 3, 2007, p. 40+. Academic OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.dop=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster&v=2.1&id=GALE %7CA171657322&it=r&asid=a2907e300271fbf3f5f4261c03783908. Accessed 16 Oct.

2017.

Nazism

Identification 

Nazism is a term typically associated with the racist political beliefs of the Nazi Party of Germany and its leader, Adolf Hitler, and was most prominent during the 1920s through 1945 at the end of the second World War. Nazism suggests that there is a pure Aryan race which is superior to other races, and that all inferior races, such as Jews and people of colour, should be sterilized. This historical ‘ism’ is often closely linked to anti-semitism, the hatred of Jews and was the basis of the beliefs from which the holocaust stemmed.

Historical Significance

Nazism is arguably one of the most influential and significant ‘isms’ as many historical events resulted out of the anti-semitic beliefs of Nazism, such as the second World War. However the influences of Nazism did not end in 1945 as the war did, this ideology has followed society all the way up to present day as we can see through the Neo-Nazi groups that have been present in recent news. Nazism was strongly built on Hitler’s use of the Jews as scapegoats, this part of Nazism can be used to shine a light on Islamophobia in the contemporary world. Muslim populations all across the globe are facing scapegoating and bigotry because of their religious practices, and are recognized by some as the terrorist enemy of the Western world. Similarly the European Jewish population were seen as enemy to Nazi Germany and faced horrific consequences because of their religious identity and millions were slaughtered for this reason, which was one of the largest events in human history. While Islamophobia and anti-Semitism may not be completely identical, they do bare some striking similarities, which we can identify through a critical analysis of Nazism views and how Nazi Germany scrutinized people because of what region they chose to practice.

Key Historical Proponents 

The historical figure who is most famously associated with Nazism is Adolf Hitler. Hitler used the European Jews as a scapegoat for Germany’s failures and sought to create a pure Aryan race by disposing of all ‘impure’ races such as Jews, people of colour, disabled people and homosexuals. Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 and began implementing the Nazi agenda which included forcing Jewish people to wear the Star of David on their clothing, forcing them out of their homes into Ghettos and invading Poland in 1939. From this Nazi agenda came the second world war in which six million Jewish people lost their lives in concentration camps and various other horrible ways. Even today when we think of the term Nazism, World War two and Adolf Hitler are the first things that pop into our brains, followed by ant-semitism and racism. Nazism is universally discredited in modern day, although the influence still rears its ugly head through Neo-Nazism in hate groups.

Carmyn Jack 

 

Bibliography 

Dobkowski, Michael. “Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism.” CrossCurrents, vol. 65, no. 3, Sept. 2015, pp. 321–333., doi:10.1111/cros.12142.

Kurlander, E. “Hitler’s Monsters: The Occult Roots of Nazism and the Emergence of the Nazi ‘Supernatural Imaginary’.” German History, vol. 30, no. 4, 2012, pp. 528–549., doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghs073.

Lepsius, M. Rainer. “Charismatic Leadership: Max Weberâs Model and Its Applicability to the Rule of Hitler.” Changing Conceptions of Leadership, 1986, pp. 53–66., doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4876-7_4.

Whitfield, Stephen J. “The South in the Shadow of Nazism.” Southern Cultures, vol. 18, no. 3, 2012, pp. 57–75., doi:10.1353/scu.2012.0024.