Benito Mussolini

July 29^th, 1883 – April 28^th, 1945

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Predappio Italy, his father was a blacksmith and a socialist journalist, and his mother was a primary school teacher. Mussolini received a formidable education and was able to graduate with a teaching diploma. He read the philosophical works of political thinkers such as Fredrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx¹, where he most likely formed his own political opinions. Mussolini was able to become politically active at a young age, where he would call for strikes and violence against the ruling elites¹. In March 1919, Mussolini was able to form the Fascist Party of Italy, they were able to gain much support from unemployed war veterans. Benito Mussolini was able to form these veterans into armed squads known as the black shirts, who were notorious for terrorizing their political opponents². Mussolini was able to successfully work his way up to the position of Prime Minister, which was offered by King Emmanuel III in 1922¹. He slowly dismantled the democratic systems within Italy, until eventually he had created his own dictatorship with himself the sole individual in power¹. By the time he was 42, he was already the fascist dictator of Italy, his rule even being praised by western leaders of the time such as Winston Churchill, who believed that a return to order was needed¹. Mussolini grew increasingly ambitious, and hungered for even more power. In 1935, he launched a campaign against Ethiopia to further Italy’s colonial holdings, they were successful in their invasion, but Mussolini’s aggressive actions caused him to be denounced by much of the western world. Due to Italy’s reputation after the invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini then decided to side with Hitler during World War II. Not long after, in 1945 Mussolini was abandoned with just a handful of men, which lead to his capture and subsequent execution. The early 20^th century was a trying time for Italy, they were also a country that got hit heavily by the great depression, so there were many citizens who were looking for answers, and were upset with their government because they felt like they had failed them². This anger and discontent created the perfect climate for Benito Mussolini to rise. He was a strong, charismatic figure who was able to rally others into violent opposition of the Italian government. What Mussolini was able to do In Italy became a common trend across Europe, soon Germany followed with Adolf Hitler, along with Spain, who turned to a fascist leader Francisco Franco. The impact that Mussolini had can still be felt to this day, not only did he pave the way for fascist dictators like Hitler and Franco to rise, but his extreme nationalism and aggressive foreign policy contributed to World War II, one of the most destructive and bloodiest world conflicts in the world’s history¹. Mussolini’s influence has reached beyond his own years however, as every July 29^th, due to said date being Mussolini’s birthday, thousands of tourists from around the world, typically those who are involved in far right-wing circles, travel to Predappio to celebrate the life of Mussolini⁴. It is a major source of income for the city of Predappio, many shops sell souvenirs, along with t-shirts that portray Mussolini’s likeness on t-shirts⁴. Though the consensus is that Mussolini is dead, and along with him died fascism, it is clear to see that his influence still reaches people nearly 80 years later, as many flock to his birthplace to celebrate him, and to praise what he did throughout his life⁴.

Spencer Sullivan

Bibliography

Lorenzini, Pietro. “Benito Mussolini.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 2017.

“History – Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945).” BBC. Accessed November 08, 2017. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml.

Richardson, Charles O. “The Rome Accords of January 1935 and the Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War.” The Historian 41, no. 1 (1978): 41-58. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1978.tb01227.x.

Paradiso, Max. “The Polite Cult of Mussolini.” New Statesman 146, no. 5382, 13-14.

Gilbert, Martin. “The Rise of Fascism in Europe in the twentieth century: lessons for today .” India International Centre Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2002): 31-38.

Other Relevant Reading

Bruckner, Tim A., Andrew Noymer, and Ralph A. Catalano. “Life Expectancy during the Great Depression in Eleven European Countries.” Population and Development Review 39, no. 1 (2013): 57-74. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00573.x.

Nelis, Jan. “Constructing Fascist Identity: Benito Mussolini and the Myth of Romanità.” Classical World 100, no. 4 (2007): 391-415. doi:10.1353/clw.2007.0069.

Abu-Musab al-Suri

Abu-Musab al-Suri was born in Aleppo, Syria in November of 1958 and is still alive today, although he is no longer able to spread his radical ideas as his whereabouts are a secret to those outside of the U.S. government agents holding him in captivity. The name Abu-Musab al-Suri is not actually the name he was given at birth, it was a name that he adopted through war; his real name is Mustafa bin Abd al-Qadir Setmariam Nasar. He is a Syrian jihadist who has had a great influence on the plans for Al-Qaeda to move forward after the incidents of 9/11. His ideas are the backbone of what has continued to give power to Al-Qaeda after these attacks.

It is stated that al-Suri is “the most important strategist for the Islamic jihadist movement of the last 20 years.” (Boyle, 2). Al-Suri’s ideas were predominantly used after the attacks of 9/11 however his sharing of his ideas about how Al-Qaeda should be handling certain situations goes back to long before 9/11 occurred. For example, at the end of the 1980s he offered his opinion to Osama bin Laden that Al-Qaeda was not using enough force and violence against Saudi Arabia. While many of his ideas are tied to Al-Qaeda, al-Suri gathered his opinions and concepts from multiple different “radical islamic organizations and networks” (Boyle, 2). This denies a kind of devotion to one specific group and rather accepts whatever ideas he sees fitting, regardless of their source. His ideas about furthering Al-Qaeda and how that should be done differ from those of Osama bin Laden’s, creating a competition for an active sense of leadership. After the dissolution of the taliban, al-Suri travelled to Pakistan where he was able to spread his ideas online, as well as work on the book that he wrote, expressing his notions about the future of Al-Qaeda. This book was entitled, Global Islamic Resistance Call , and it was published and shared at mass through the internet in the transitioning months from 2004 to 2005. In this book, he discreetly wrote about his belief that the force of Al-Qaeda and other organizations of the like were not strong enough to undermine the forces of the western countries which in turn explains his ideas about there being a change in Al-Qaeda after the 9/11 attacks. Prior to this book being written, al-Suri gave talks in Afghanistan which were recorded and also widely spread, to influence more people and to gain more power for him. Al-Suri was also a main suspect in the London bombings, and while it turned out that he was not directly affiliated with these attacks, his ideas helped influence the people who were behind them. After the attacks, al-Suri, himself, said; “I swear to God that I have in me a joy stronger than the joy of the farmer who sees the harvest of his fruits after a long planting and efforts and patience throughout decades of building.” This quotation reinforces the notion that he supported these forms of extreme violence and believed in the necessity of these aggressive actions against other, western, countries, therefore having faith in terrorism. Al-Suri’s objectives were essentially realized through the “islamic militants” creation of multiple groups used for different methods of attack. These methods include smaller groups positioned to perform random attacks as well as larger groups who are in constant warfare. In November of 2005, al-Suri was arrested in Pakistan, this being a very significant arrest because it was uncommon for someone who was a post 9/11 influence to be arrested, as many of the people caught by the government had ideas predating the attack in 2001. Abu-Musab al-Suri’s ideas are still being put into motion today as many of the people he personally influenced are now in power positions in numerous different islamic groups. Due to how widely his perceptions were shared and how dedicated he was to a life of terrorism he belonged to, his influence will continue to be perpetrated through his followers.

 

Sarah Kirkwood

Works Cited

1. Boyle, Michael J. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 84, no. 5

   (2008): 1054-055. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25144948 .

2. Cruickshank, Paul and Mohannad Hage Ali. 2007. “Abu Musab Al Suri: Architect of the New Al Qaeda.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 30 (1): 1-14. doi:10.1080/10576100601049928. http://resolver.scholarsportal.info/resolve/1057610x/v30i0001/1_amasaotnaq .

Despotism

Identification

Despotism is defined as the exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel or oppressive fashion. It can mean tyranny, or a dictatorship, frequently in cases of despotism the despot is an autocrat, an individual ruling with absolute power. Despotism has occurred across the world throughout history. Traditional monarchies and religious powers are examples of despotism, with a king, Pope or Patriarch ruling with absolute power. Today despotism exists in countries in the Middle East, Africa and the developing world. Notable examples of despotic and autocratic states include North Korea, Syria and Saudi Arabia. Despots and the concept of despotism have existed throughout time in some way or another, from that tribal leaders and warrior champions to child kings and vicious modern dictators. “It can be said that fear of violence, and awe at the power and presumed honour and virtue of despots are the cornerstone of the republic and monarchy” (Imbruglia, 493).

Historical Significance

Despotism has played a huge role in human history and continues to do so today. Ancient societies were often despotic, with a single King or monarch ruling absolutely. It is important because it was the relied upon form of government and power in much of the world for much of our recorded history. To this day despotic societies and states exist, with dictators and monarchs who wield absolute power, often to the chagrin of their subjects. The contemporary moment has been irrevocably altered due to the existence of despots and despotic regimes. Despotism was all that the world knew for many years, with kings, popes and other absolute rulers sitting in a place of unquestioned superiority. It was during the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment period where the validity of despotism and its place in mans natural world was first questioned (Richter, 9). Despotism was the primary model of rule in much of the world for much of history; it can show us why so many world powers and ancient civilisations were ruled absolutely and why despotic rule exists in some states today. By understanding despotism and its associated power we can better understand contemporary dictators and at what points in societal history and development despotism thrives in. We can look back and understand the position that power and despotism played in the development of our history, see why it flourished and why it has slowly died out.

Key Historical Proponents

The idea of despotism and the concept itself was a much discussed topic during the Enlightenment and after the French Revolution. Many philosophical thinkers had theories and ideas on despotisms role in societal development and on our species as a whole. Many famous enlightenment era thinkers had specific views on despotism and its place in contemporary culture. Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu all had opinions on despotisms place in our society. Voltaire and Rousseau had opposing views on the matter of course, Voltaire believing in enlightened despotism, or the right of a single leader, group or class to rule absolutely with its subjects best interests in mind. Rousseau believed in the inalienable right of the individual to rule him, and those despotic forces whether good or bad in their exercise of power should be avoided. Rousseau’s strong emphasis on nationalism and the individual member of society is at logger heads with despotism, as it does not allow for one single, all powerful entity. The traditional monarchies of European superpowers, such as the British Royal family, the Tsars of Russia and the French monarchy were all despotic, and either changed their role in their state or was snuffed out by the new emerging educated middle class. Overall Despotism was a hotly contested and used word during the Enlightenment era and the French Revolution, living on today through a small handful of dictators and proponents of absolute rule.

Eric Goessele

 

 

Bibliography

Imbruglia, Giorlamo. “Two Principles of Despotism: Diderot between Machiavelli and de la Boëtie.” History of European Ideas Vol. 34, Issue 4 (2008): 490-499.

Richter, Melvin. “The Concept of Despotism and L’abus de Mots.” Contributions to the History of Concepts Vol. 3, No. 1 (2007): 5-22.

Boesche, Roger. “Fearing Monarchs and Merchants: Montesquieu’s Two Theories of Despotism.” The Western Political Quarterly Vol. 43, No. 4 (1990): 741-761.

McAdam, James I. “Rousseau and the Friends of Despotism.” The University of Chicago Press Vol. 74, No. 1 (1963): 34-43.