Gustave Flaubert

Gustave Flaubert was a French novelist. He was born and died in Rouen, France, on the 12^th of December 1821 and the 8^th of May 1880, respectively.  He is most widely known for his novel Madame Bovary, which was published in 1857. After completing his secondary studies at a Lycée in Rouen, he studied law in Paris, but was a despondent student and disliked the city. He gave up law in 1846. (brown 2006) Flaubert is most commonly recognized as a pioneer of the literary movement of Realism. Realism is generally more concerned with the everyday and commonplace aspects of life, and defined predominantly by the precision and care with which the work is constructed. This is in contrast to the preceding era of Victorian literature (which was usually darker and concerned with the grittier aspects of life, and in which the forces of nature contributed greatly to the plot.) Although he was a great realist, there are also prominent aspects of romanticism in his work. As a writer, Flaubert was deeply influenced by the Marquis de Sade, which may seem surprising simply based on the difference in the subjects of their novels. However, over the course of his life, Flaubert returned to de Sade many times – as he was so intrigued by de Sade’s ability to depict physical agony in an artful way that these themes come to the surface in several of Flaubert’s works (for example, Emma’s suicide by arsenic poisoning in Madame Bovary.) (Wall 2007) Flaubert’s style of prose has been described by Vladimir Nobokov as “[a] kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author’s private sentiments […] the legacy of his work habits can best be described […] as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing.” (Nobokov 1980) This kind of precise, slow, self-reflective writing Flaubert is known for is perhaps a response to the criticism his first version of his novel The Temptation of Saint Anthony (1849) received. The Temptation of Saint Anthony is a distinctly fantastical novel, its is Flaubert’s attempt to create a Faust in French, and because it did not initially receive any praise, Flaubert may have changed his writing to focus on more everyday subjects in response to this. (Leal 1990) His writing style did no come naturally to him, as he describes in some of his personal correspondence, but instead was painstakingly constructed. (Flaubert 1980) His most famous and influential novel, Madame Bovary was quite shocking when it was first published, as it depicts a middle-class (bourgeoisie) French woman as breaking the moulds of what was expected of a wife at the time, and giving herself over to passion and foolishness. (Flaubert 2004) This novel is a rather feminist interpretation of the 19^th century woman, although it is not at all glowing. Flaubert recognizes the cage of domesticity that many women were confined to, and a woman’s inability to flee her unsatisfying life without the help of a man. (Flaubert 2004) Flaubert’s construction of a new way of writing a novel influenced many authors who came after him, very notably Franz Kafka. Kafka was deeply influenced by Flaubert’s method of introspective and precise writing, so much so that their attitudes towards the connection between literature and the self were very similar. Kafka was so touched by Flaubert’s attitude towards the painstaking creative process that both writers had a similar method of creating. (Bernheimer 1982) Because of his marrying of realism and romanticism many writers influenced by either movement can trace their influence to Flaubert and his style. Flaubert’s creation of what could be called the modern novel has influenced many writers, as his perfectionist style of realist narration was so captivating. His method of structuring his writing was so influential that many 21^st century readers are so familiar with his influence that it is hard to notice. (Wood, 2009) In terms of literary style, narration, and prose, there was most definitely a time before Flaubert and a time after him.

Astrid Moore

Works Cited

Bernheimer, Charles. Flaubert and Kafka: Studies in Psychopoetic Structure. Yale University Press, 1982.

Brown, Frederick. Flaubert: A Biography. Little Brown, 2006.

Flaubert, Gustave. The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880. Edited by Francis Steegmuller. Harvard University Press, 1980.

Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Leal, R.B. “The Unity of Flaubert’s ‘Tentation de saint Antoine (1874)’”. The Modern Language Review, 85(2). 1990.

Nobokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Literature, Volume 1. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.

Wall, Geoffrey. Thinking with Demons: Flaubert and de Sade. The Cambridge Quarterly, 36(2). Oxford University Press, 2007.

Wood, James. How Fiction Works. Vintage Books, 2009.

Other Relevant Reading

Burton, Richard D.E. The death of politics: the significance of Dambreuse’s funeral in ‘L’Education sentimentale’. French Studies, 50(2). The Society for French Studies, 1996.

De Baisi, Pierre-Marc. Gustave Flaubert : Une Manière Spéciale De Vivre. Paris: B. Grasset, 2009.

George Orwell

June 25^th, 1903 – January 21^st, 1950

Born Eric Arthur Blair in Motihari, India, and later adopting the penname George Orwell, is one of the most influential and read authors in the world (Robert Forman). He grew up in England in, what he describes as a “lower-upper-middle class family,” where he attended Eton College and received subpar grades that did not allow him to attend university (Forman). Due to this he joined the British Foreign Office and worked as an Imperial Officer in Burma until 1927 (Forman). Upon his arrival back in England, he began his writing career, and started his transformation into a socialist author (Brendan McQuade). His experiences with his class struggles growing up, and of those in Burma shaped his political ideals, ones where he questioned the role of Britain in an imperialistic context, and the idea of social progress and who it benefits (McQuade).

Orwell also joined the British Independent Labour Party, a socialist political party that advocated for the rights of the working class (Robert Forman). He attended summer meetings and lent his name to fundraising efforts (Forman). During December 1936, while still a member of the Independent Labour Party, he became interested in “the Republican cause in Spain” and arrived there as a volunteer to help the efforts (Forman). He then became an active member of Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, a Marxist party who fought for legislative reformation (Forman). He then fought in the Spanish civil war until he suffered a throat wound due to a sniper bullet, which caused him to return to England in the spring of 1937 (Brendan McQuade). He then began to write Homage to Catalonia, expressing the differences between communism and Marxism, and therefore becoming a strong denouncer of communism, making all his future work targets of communist press (McQuade).

George Orwell also attempted to fight for Great Britain in the second World War, due to his ethics, he saw western imperialism as less evil then fascism, and he believed that the British empire would dramatically change in the war, but was denied enlistment due to health concerns (Robert Forman). After the war, many communist groups made him and his writings their champion, but he strongly denounced them, as he was a strong disbeliever in the ideology (Forman). Orwell was a strong socialist, and stuck to his ethics consistently, sometimes costing him success and friendship, but “he refused to become either a tool of British imperialism or a dupe of communism” (Forman). He was a realist, and believed that based on a means for survival, and not for the sake of peace, Europe would unite after the second World War as he assumed “that violence is endemic to social life and that the force-wielding sovereign cannot be done away with” (McQuade). He was not a pacifist and thought that violence was necessary to create order within society (McQuade). Orwell was “suspicious of a politics managed by experts as of the utopian anticipation of a violence-free world” (McQuade). This is a theme prominent throughout his writings, the concept of utopia and dystopia, that was shaped by his experiences. Orwell’s writing from the mid 20^th century still provides discourse on the modern political state, thereby justifying his historical significance.

Robyn Sidhu

Works Cited

Brendan, McQuade. ““The Road from Mandalay to Wigan Is a Long One and the Reasons for Taking It Aren’t Immediately Clear”: A World-System Biography of George Orwell.” Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol 21, Iss 2, Pp 313-338 (2015), no. 2, 2015, p. 313. EBSCOhost, doi:10.5195/jwsr.2015.7.

Forman, Robert J. “George Orwell.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January.

EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88801636&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Gerson, Gal. “George Orwell on Political Realism and the Future of Europe.” European Legacy, vol. 22, no. 1, Feb. 2017, pp. 1-15. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10848770.2016.1242294.

Stone, John. “George Orwell on Politics and War.” Review of International Studies, vol. 43, no. 2, Apr. 2017, pp. 221-239. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1017/S026021051600036X.

Other Relevant Reading

Orwell, George. 1984. Harvill Secker, 2016. Print.

Orwell, George. Homage to Catalonia ; Down and out in Paris and London.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010.

Rodden, John. “Orwell’s Significance for Intellectuals Today: ‘A Presence in Our Lives’.” The

Midwest Quarterly, no. 3, 2009, p. 216. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.197797430&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Alexander Pushkin

June 6, 1799 – Feb 10, 1837

Alexander Pushkin was an 18th century Russian poet, playwright and novelist. At the height of his career during the Romantic Era, Pushkin would go on to be considered the founder of modern Russian literature. Alexander Pushkin was born in Moscow, Russia on June 6th 1799 into a noble family. Pushkin began writing at an extremely early age, publishing his first poem at 15. Given the political tensions of the Tsar regime, Pushkin was unable to openly publish his work (Blagoy, 2016). Pushkin became involved with social reform during 1820, serving as spokesperson for literary radicals. Pushkin’s radical work reflected that of the emerging ideas of political rationalism and the emphasis on civic freedom (Bethea, 1998). Pushkin’s work reflected his Romanticist ideologies which opposed the Tsar monarch and stressed the important of liberty (Druzhnikov, 1999). Pieces such as ‘The Prisoner of the Causcasus’ and ‘The Robber Brothers’ mirrored Pushkin’s affinity for romantic narratives with underlying political connotations (Beathea, 1998). The Russian Tsar soon came to hear of Pushkin’s literary work which was wildly consumed by the Russian youth of the era, cumulating in the exile of Pushkin to Siberia in April 1820. Pushkin’s exile provided inspiration which was channeled into creative literature focusing on varying forms of novel prose and poetry, creating renowned pieces such as ‘Yevgeny Onegin’. ‘Yevgeny Onegin’ explored the social and environmental pressures influencing an ideal Russian way of life (Brown, 1986). Pushkin’s work was innovative due to his unapologetic way of painting his stories in tradition Russia, objectifying his nationalism, versus other writers who prefer exotic locations as the setting of their literature. During his exile, Pushkin was moved from Siberia to Mikhaylovskoye. Although Pushkin was incredibly depressed during his time at Mikhaylovskoye, this era brought about his most productive work. His isolation caused him to critically study Russian history (Briggs, 1983). Through his research, he was particularly moved by the records of Russian peasants in particular (Debreczeny, 1997). This newfound knowledge was reflected in his writing as he began to move away from earlier ‘southern’ melodious pieces and created a simple yet fast-paced style (Sandler, 1989). This difference symbolized the influence of his examination of Russian classism. His writing began to mirror the ‘for the people’ ideals that was emerging in French theater, rejecting neoclassicism (Zaki, 2016). Pushkin emphasized the moral and political implications of the ruling class, the Tsar, versus the masses, the Russian people (Vernadsky, 1953). By the spring of 1826, Pushkin petitioned to be pardoned from exile and his motion was granted with strict guidelines which stated that Pushkin was not to partake in publications of any kind. To oppose this condition, Pushkin travelled towards Caucasus, situating in Chisinau, Russia where he became a Freemason (Blagoy, 2016). Between 1829 and 1836, Pushkin’s writing had finally reached full potential. Pieces such as ‘The Covetous Knight’ and ‘The Stone Guest’, brought about critical acclaim due to their profound sensibility paired with Pushkin’s ability to accurately recant the essence of the historical epochs he chose to write about (Brown, 1986). Alexander Pushkin died on February 10th 1837 after a fatal duel brought about by George-Charles de Heeckeren d’Anthès, his brother in law, attempts to seduce Pushkin’s wife, Natalia Pushkina (Feinstein, 1999). Overall, Pushkin’s work hold great historical significance due to the reoccurring themes such as civic responsibility, conscious reason and vigor paired with literary excellence. Alexander Pushkin’s notable contributions to Russian literature as well as modern works have led him to be considered the Greatest Russian poet.

 

Vipushi Sivanesanathan 

 

Works Cited

Bethea, David M. Realizing metaphors: Alexander Pushkin and the life of the poet. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1998.

Blagoy, Dimitry Dimitriyevich. “Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 15 Nov. 2016, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-

Sergeyevich-Pushkin. 1986.

Briggs, Anthony DP. Alexander Pushkin: a critical study. Rowman & Littlefield, 1983.

A history of Russian literature of the romantic period. Vol. 4. Ardis,

Brown, William Edward. A History of Russian Literature

Debreczeny, Paul.Social functions of literature: Alexander Pushkin and Russian culture. Prisoner of Russia: Alexander Pushkin and the Political Uses of Nationalism.

Feinstein, Elaine. Pushkin: a biography. Ecco Press, 1999.

Sandler, Stephanie. Distant Pleasures: Alexander Pushkin and the Writing of Exile. Stanford

The mongols and russia. Vol. 97. New Haven: Yale

 

Brown, William Edward.

 

Wisconsin Press, 1998.

Debreczeny, Paul.

Stanford University Press, 1997.

Druzhnikov, I︠ U︡ riĭ.

Transaction Publishers, 1999.

Sandler, Stephanie.

University Press, 1989.

Vernadsky, George, and Michael Karpovich.

University Press, 1953.

Zaki, Fadi. “Neoclassical Art Movement.” Identify This Art – Your Guide through the Art

Movements, 3 Feb. 2016, http://www.identifythisart.com/art-movements-styles/pre-modern-

art/neoclassical-art-movement/.

Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky

1811 – 1848

“What is, what ought to be”, was one of the first thoughts Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky had as he lived in peace within the Tsarist autocracy. Belinsky was born to a rural doctor in 1811, not being born to an elite family, he had worked for his own living. Although, he did not follow typical ways of rising within society such as following his father’s footsteps. Instead, Belinsky started as a freelance journalist. Being expelled from his university in 1832 because of political activity, he soon became one of the most influential revolutionary literary critics in Russia (Gunn, 2017).

“What is, is not what ought to be”, was a transformed thought that Belinsky passionately embraced. This change of thought came about by Russia’s position at the tipping edge of Europe (Matthewson, 2000). A contradictory battle of excluding Europe yet to become more like her fueled the stomachs of those who were pushed aside by the Tsarist regime. A new soul was born within the rising Western ideals (Epstein, 2006). A war began within Russia between those who were concerned with this mimicry and those who wanted to use them as a stepping stone towards power. Critics needed an area to voice their arguments against the issue of serfdom; the aristocracy needed an area to censor others and voice their own thoughts. Literacy was a perfect and equal battleground for both sides (Matthewson, 2000). Much of the population was conflicted, looking down at the revolutionaries’ stand on social and economic matters. Soviets viewed new ideals as going against the true judgement of Russia (Nahirny, 1962). Within this part of history, it was clear that there was a dire need for a human representative embracing virtue and ideal behaviour. Not one shaped by superficial utopian ideals, but one who could relate to the people in truth. This lionheart would be able to bring the people together under one common enemy. Once again, literature became the birthing place of this fresh hero of Russia (Matthewson, 2000).

Belinsky developed this lionheart. He showed that moving away from Tsarist rule, incorporating new ideas but keeping Russia’s culture was in the people’s best interests. Belinsky did this with the help of realism and truthfulness (Shkolnikov, 2003). Belinsky criticized many works that focused on the superficial and the unrealistic. Belinksy’s Letter to Gogol is a perfect representation of his strong feelings about truth. For years Gogol opposed the evils of serfdom and the Tsarist corruption, however when he published Selected Passages from a Correspondence with Friends, he wrote that his feelings were completely different. Gogol explained that the only reason why Russia was in a turmoil was because of the failings of individuals and the only way to reverse it was to follow the autocratic system (Epstein, 2006). Belinsky’s response, Letter to Gogol was a furious and famous reaction that was dubbed as a landmark of Russian intellectual history that showed the interconnectedness of Westernizing intelligentsia’s beliefs (Raeff, 1966, p.252). This passion is what earned him the nickname, “Furious Vissarion”.  Belinsky was very optimistic concerning the contribution to the revolution. He characterized the Russian movement as always moving up and growing forward. He frequently mentioned that proclaiming the truthfulness is essential to a change (Kliger, 2011). However, this idea of realism and truthfulness was sometimes too much for him. Belinsky wrestled harshly with the fact that truth and moral obligation in Russia did not entirely exist (Matthewson, 2000). Applying his standards to the world around him, he did not always see a land for a good virtuous man to exist within “the poisonous social atmosphere he breathes”. (Matthewson, 2000). Belinsky longed to create a hero because none existed. Belinksy’s lionheart was not a sovereign, a lawmaker or a conqueror. Neither was he a man of genius or supernatural, he would be a representative among equals. He would be not a member of the aristocracy. He would attack the Tsarist regime and protect its victims – serfs and peasants. The lionheart would have a great sense of národnost (Matthewson, 2000). Belinksy is revered as the author of the image of man. Belinsky defines art as revealing the truth, and the artist as a person who embraced this and therefore should be important to society (Fattal, 1973). Belinksy did and still does hold this position within Russia; critics of the 1850s and 1860s were armed with Belinsky’s lionheart and passion for their country. They continued to search for this new hero within.

Sylvia Dobosz

References

Epstein, M. (2006). The Demise of the First Secularization: The Church of Gogol and the Church of Belinsky. Studies in East European Thought, 58(2), 95-105. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20099938

Fattal, R. D. (1973). Russian radical criticism : the socio-political significance of Belinsky, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. McGill Russian Review, 22(1), 100. doi:10.2307/126609

Gunn, J. (2017). Dostoyevsky: a life of contradiction. Gloucestershire, GL: Amberley Publishing

Hans Kohn. (1955). Vissarion Belinsky, 1811-1848. A Study in the Origins of Social Criticism in Russia. The Russian Review, 14(2), 160-162. doi:10.2307/125577

Kliger, I. (2011). Genre and Actuality in Belinskii, Herzen, and Goncharov: Toward a Genealogy of the Tragic Pattern in Russian Realism. Slavic Review, 70(1), 45-66. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.70.1.0045

Mathewson, R. W. (2000). The positive hero in Russian literature. Evanston, IL: North Western University Press.

Nahirny, V. C. (1962). The Russian Intelligentsia: from Men of Ideas to Men of Convictions*. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 4(04), 403. doi:10.1017/s0010417500001389

Raeff, M. (1966). Russian Intellectual History: An Anthology. New York, NY: Prometheus Books

Randolph, J. (2007). The house in the garden: the Bakunin family and the romance of Russian idealism. Cornell University Press. Retrieved from  http://hdl.handle.net.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/2027/heb.32405.0001.001.

Shkolnikov, V. (2003). Imperial Realism: Belinsky and the Wretched of the Earth. Ulbandus Review, 7, 63- 72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25748123

Other Relevant Reading

Belinsky, V, G (1847). Letter to Gogol.

Belinsky, V, G. (1948). Selected philosophical works. Belfast: S.L.S. Legal Publications.

Gogol, N. (1847). Selected Passages with Correspondence with Friends.