Voltaire

November 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778

Full name: François-Marie Arouet

From a first Glance, Voltaire appears to any old 18^th century philisophe, but if you dive deeper you find one of the most influential and famous enlightenment thinkers of all time. His views on religion, politics, and science would help to push society to how it operates today. The controversies he sparked and his mission to raise awareness of things such ad Newtonianism solidified both his fame and his infamy.

Voltaire both is and isn’t credited with the introduction of science and enlightenment ideas into the modern era. Although he was responsible for them becoming more public, he was not origin point of the ideas, rather he was a very large supporter of these ideas. A “popularizer” is what most people of his time would call Voltaire, using his literary skills he was able to spread to concepts of Newtonianism and rationalism in clear, concise and attractive ways. During his time as an Exile in France he grew alarge fascination with the immerging ideas of Newton, and would eventually become a complete supporter of Newtonianism. Voltaire even attended Newton’s funeral, where his famous though arose; “that great intellectual achievement might alter history.”² Newton had found fame and recognition through his discoveries, Voltaire would to the same through his writings. His works “were remarkable neither for depth of analysis, accuracy or originality but rather for cleverness of expression and ability to say quotable things at the right moment.”¹ This is where the controversy steps in however, many of his time considered him a fraud, or fake philisophe. He wasn’t a true scientist, and even after his role in the popularization of scientific ideas he was unable to keep up with them, in this is was seen as an amateur of science. He “achieved fame because his curiosity pushed him into an amazing variety of fields, because he was able to glean the essentials from the work of more thoroughgoing scholars, and because he had literary ability.”¹ , not because how was truly masterful or knowledgeable in science as the ideas the popularized.

Before becoming a criticized scientific supporter, Voltaire was primarily known for his playwriting. And as he had wished, his writings brought him immense fame and is what allowed his popularization of scientific and enlightenment ideas to come to fruition. Through his plays, poems, and novels he commented (and sometimes even slightly parodied) things like Newtonianism, rationalism, government, religion and history. His every growing interest in science would pave the way for future religious beliefs, eventually turning him extremely anti-religious. Many of Voltaire’s views on religion plant direct attacks of Judaism in fact it could be argues that his attacks of Judaism were unlined attacks on Christianity. Voltaire believed that “the Jews remained the same innately corrupt people they had always been and that they were still capable of doing additional harm, in the future, to the Europeans among whom they lived.”³ And would “single out the Jews not simply in order to pursue an indirect or veiled attack on the Christian religion but, in large part, because he considered them to be responsible for the very existence of that religion”³ His criticisms of religion would obviously bring him misfortune, as it was the 18^th century, but not before his enlightenment ideas were spread far an wide.

His popularization of ideas like government corruption helped others to question authority and how the higher ups should run their lives. His enthusiasm for science and remarks of religion helped to usher in the scientific age and the start to the end to religious control. Although not a true Scientific mind, Voltaire was both a fantastic writer and a true philosopher, and it is likely because of his writings that the world operates the way it does today.

Nic Verspaget

Works Cited

¹Rockwood O, Raymond. “Voltaire.” The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 9, No. 4 (Dec., 1937), pp. 493- 501. The University of Chicago Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899207

²Johnson, W. “Voltaire after 300 Years.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Jul., 1994), pp. 215-220. Royal Society Stable. http://www.jstor.org/stable/532163

³Arkush, Allan. “Voltaire on Judaism and Christianity.” AJS Review, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1993), pp. 223-243. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Jewish Studies. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1486572

Rosenthal, Jerome. “Voltaire’s Philosophy of History.” Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Apr., 1955), pp. 151-178. University of Pennsylvania Press Stable. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2707660

Topazio W, Virgil. “Voltaire, Philosopher of Human Progress.” PMLA, Vol. 74, No. 4 (Sep., 1959), pp. 356- 364. Modern Language Association. http://www.jstor.org/stable/460445

Zerffi G, G. “Voltaire, in His Relation to the Study of General History, from a Philosophical Point of View.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 10 (1882), pp. 344-370. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Royal Historical Society. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3678028

Adam Mickiewicz

Dec 24, 1798 – Nov 26, 1855

Adam Mickiewicz was a Pole, born in 1798, on grounds taken over by the Russian Empire. He lived during the World War II, and the Nazi Occupation. This was a time when Poland was fighting for their independance. Poland’s existence, was under a lot of pressure. Adam Mickiewicz took the events of World War II, and the effect that the events had on humanity, and he turned it into beautiful poetry.

Adam Mickiewicz was a Polish poet, who practically invented romanticism in Poland, and in Europe. Mickiewicz fought for Poland’s independence. He believed in patriotism, and religion above all other. Adam Mickiewicz was able to bring poetry into life. He understood humanity, and nature. He gave Poland hope during the nazi occupation. Roman Koropeckyj states, “His name served as a point of reference whenever the survival of the polish nation was at stake, and whenever ideas about its fate needed legitimation” (Koropeckyj, Preface, ix) Poland’s independence, and patriotism was highly influenced by Adam Mickiewicz. He inspired many Poles to fight, and to never give up on their country.

His two most finest poems are, Dziady, and Pan Tadeusz. Pan Tadeusz has become the national epic poem of Poland. In his poems he intertwines, horror, and death with nationality, and patriotism. His poems are clear, and pure. Adam Mickiewicz was greatly inspired by Byron. Adam Mickiewicz was not afraid to say what he thinks, and feels. His poem, Dziady was banned because, it made the russians uncomfortable due to the poems anti-russian remarks. His poems embrace religion, nationalism, patriotism, and humanity. His poems taught the world how to love, and respect a country. He inspired people to do everything, and anything for their heritage, and country.

Adam Mickiewicz earned his historical significance by being a great poet, as well as being a great enforcer of nationalism. He was interested in politics, and always fought for the good of the people. His fight for Poland’s independence, and his love for his country is what inspired many others. His poems touched the hearts, and lives of people universally. His spirit, and emotions influenced, and changed patriotism all around the world. His thoughts, ideas, and words; his poems, embraced all humanity. Manfred states, “ Mickiewicz always united the Polish cause with that of the whole of humanity and never lowered his ideals to the level of narrow nationalism” (Manfred, 355). Thus, his poems were universal. He rejected separatism, and embraced unionization. Mickiewicz did not discriminate, he believed all people deserve rights, and freedom. He stood up for humanity. Mickiewicz understood social, and political problems nationwide. While fighting for independence, he was also fighting for liberation.

 

The name Mickiewicz has become a well known and well respected name. Adam Mickiewicz has caught the attention of many other historical figures. For instance, M azzini Giuseppe described Mickiewicz as, “more than a poet: a prophet” (Nagorski, p.99). Today, Poland thanks Adam Mickiewicz for fighting for Poland, and for inspiring others to fight. Kridl Manfred states, “He is the main spiritual source of modern Polish patriotism…” (Manfred, 359) His writings, have made Poland’s patriotism, and religion into what it is today. On the global level, Adam Mickiewicz transformed Romanticism and made it his own. He was a genius who brought poetry to life. His works are raw, beautiful, and relatable.

Agnieszka Prymicz

 

Works Cited

Blum, George P. “Nazism.” Salem Press Encyclopedia (2017): Research Starters , (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=1b322f79-493 b-4f45-9f71-caf282391ae1%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcG U9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=96397535&db=ers

Cochran, Peter. “Roman Koropeckyj. Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic.” Pushkin Review 11 (2008): 193+. Literature Resource Center (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster& v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA259467591&asid=57a63f42b6a65c30939f362d72e68946 .

Kridl, Manfred. “Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855).” American Slavic and East European Review 7, no. 4 (1948): 340-60. (accessed November 9, 2017).

Click to access 2491889.pdf

Nagórski, Zygmunt. “The Adam Mickiewicz Year.” The Polish Review 1, no. 1 (1956): 99-107. (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://www.jstor.org/stable/25776032 .

Trencsenyi, B., Kopecek, M. “National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements.” Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe (2007):1770–1945,
(accessed November 9, 2017).

http://books.openedition.org/ceup/2229

Koropeckyj, Robert. “Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic” Cornell University Press (2008). (accessed November 9, 2017).

https://quod-lib-umich-edu.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;idno=heb32418#

Other relevant reading(s):

Zakrzewski, Christopher A. “Pan Tadeusz.” Sarmatian Review 35, no. 3 (2015): 1939+. Academic OneFile (accessed November 10, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster &v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA428998858&sid=ebsco&asid=86482ef42efa557512312e609442f d1b .

Secularism

Identification

Secularism is the belief that religion should not influence decisions made by the government or anything else that may effect the public life. It is an advocation of separating the church and the state. It is regarded as a method for modernization. Many key historical figures such as Voltaire, Diderot, Locke and Paine supported the idea. The term first surfaced in 1851 and was first used by George Jacob Holyoake. Secularism was supported by the intellectuals who realized that it aligned with their philosophy of self-improvement.

Historical Significance

Today, most countries in the world are secular, a lot of them don’t even have a state religion. Secularism has led to modernization by allowing radical thoughts and reforms to be discussed more freely. Secularism was a significant source of newly emerging creed of scientific naturalism in the mid- nineteenth century. It also led to liberalism and progressiveness. This led to modernization of several countries, which led to industrial revolution and increased the scientific, social and economic progress exponentially. Secularism was promoted by nationalist states, organized religion was undermined in many nationalistic states, such as France, Germany and Turkey. Secularism was also promoted in socialist and communist states, where people were mostly Atheists.

Key Historical Proponents

French Revolution had several effects on the relationship between the state and the church. A new religion was being developed by the revolutionaries, where the people worship a creator, but there was no head of an organized religion. Later on French secularism was called Laicite.

Another example of secularism is Turkey. The republic was founded in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, where it adopted a secular policy similar to France. The republic cracked down on all religious affairs harshly, and brought them all under state control. Just like France, all government employees must not wear religious symbols or articles. But, today those laws are changing.

Another example of secularism is the United States of America, but their secular policies are different from the European model. There are amendments which prohibits the congressional government from interfering with the free exercise of religion and establishment of religion. It is regarded in higher regard compared to the European model, because it creates a co-operative environment between the government and other religions.

Jaan Parekh

 

Bibliography

Bonham, John M. Secularism, Its Progress and Its Morals. New York; London, 1894.

RECTENWALD, MICHAEL. “Secularism and the cultures of nineteenth-century scientific naturalism. ” British Journal for the History of Science , Vol. 46 Issue 2, Jun2013 , Jun2013 . Historical Abstracts, 10.1017/S0007087412000738.

Tombuş, H. Ertuğ . “(Post-)Kemalist Secularism in Turkey. ” Journal of Balkan & Near Eastern Studies , Aygenç, Berfu , Vol. 19 Issue 1 , Feb2017 , p70-85 . Historical Abstracts, 10.1080/19448953.2016.1201995

Existentialism

Identification:

The philosophy known as existentialism is believed to ponder the existence of human nature, the purpose, and the meaning behind the fundamental freedoms inherited from the consciousness of humans. This theory has most commonly been known due to the work of existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre, whose philosophy grew following the end of World War 2 and the liberation of Paris. Sartre, a writer from France, had been acknowledged as an originator of the movement which enlightened the masses to be the conductor of one’s own life, by advocating existentialism as freedom. Sartre does this by communicating how people are ‘free organic individuals’ in order to defend intrinsic values against a world of mass destruction.

Historical Significance:

The movement known as existentialism stood for defending man’s human dignity and opposing all forms of determinism for oneself. This point of view has shaped contemporary society, as well as the 20^th century, to dismiss authoritarianism from those of autonomy, as well as in a religious perspective. From the growing of existentialism, individuals began to reject ideas such as figures of authority, the Church, and God. Such viewpoints were not uncommon in the Enlightenment period, in which influential leaders such as Voltaire aimed to crush the Catholic church, while Jean-Jacques Rousseau opposed the conformity of a state due to the presumption it would cause class divisions. Both famous points of view regarding the Enlightenment are derived from existentialism, as Voltaire and Rousseau advocate to oppose regularity and conformity within man’s surroundings, despite their contrasting views. In contemporary society, existentialism is much more common and accepted, as large amounts of the world’s population do not practice a religion. Many individuals identify as atheist and do not believe in a God, which contributes to Sartre’s philosophy that if man exists to be free, man must not be subjected to those who deprive him of his independence, therefore rejecting the existence of God.

Key Historical Proponents:

While Jean-Paul Sartre is most associated with the influential theory of existentialism, as well as Simone de Beauvoir, their philosophy has been heavily critiqued in the past. For example, in 1986, after Sartre’s time of living, David Detmer published a novel named ‘Freedom as a Value: A Critique of the Ethical Theory of Jean-Paul Sartre,’ which contributed to significant debates regarding Sartre’s philosophy. Although one of Sartre’s famous pieces such as ‘Is Existentialism a Humanism?’ was published near the end of World War 2, individuals later in the past have identified critiques of his work. An example of Detmer’s critique involves how he argued that Sartre advocates that ethical subjectivism follows from a value of anti-realism. This means that Sartre believed that ethical sentences express propositions that are a subject of an opinion and not based on external reality. Additionally, other views regarding existentialism include the idea that it is an alternate form of bourgeoise individualism, that brings upon social solidarity that hinders individual freedom rather than enhancing it. Another view conflicting existentialism is from David Roberts’s novel called ‘Existentialism and Religious Belief,’ published in 1959. He states that according to Sartre’s philosophy those who hinder man’s freedom should be dismissed, but God gave man freedom and should not be identified with the same properties of consciousness as those in society. Therefore, while existentialism was severely influential, many refute such beliefs.

Rola Tuffaha

 

Bibliography

Flynn, Thomas. Existentialism : A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, UK, 2006. ProQuest

Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/mcmu/detail.action?docID=430845.

Smith, T. (2015). Existentialism. Research Starters: Education (Online Edition).

Smith, T., & Eshleman, M. C. (2015). A critique of freedom as a value: defending the early Sartre against

moral relativism. Sartre Studies International, 21(2), 108+ Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA448030754&asid=786e830af32a437d51e627f4efc25a40

Udokang, E. J. (2016). Implications of Sartre’s humanistic existentialism. Journal of Comparative 

Literature and Aesthetics, 39(1-2), 83+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA473922762&asid=5748bdebf1e8b2129105f32293e3d098

Wardle, D. (2016). A contemporary sense of existentialism. South African Journal of Philosophy, 35(3),

336-344. doi:10.1080/02580136.2016.1209932

Nationalism

Identification:

Nationalism prominently began in the early 19th century after the fall of Napoleon and his reign as emperor of France. Nationalism began to change the legal and political systems in France and installed national symbols. Nationalism was defined as “devotion to one’s country” in 1844. Nationalism aims to gain sovereignty over a nation’s land and govern it how they want while displaying a national identity categorized under culture, language, race, religion, and ethnicity.

Historical Significance:
There are two different appeals to Nationalism, one is stating that nationalism is good and the other poses that nationalism is bad. The word Nationalism described by author Gustavo de las Casas is, “unifying large groups into extended families… nationalism says nothing about how one nation should treat another… it does not manufacture hate on others, just concern for one’s fellow citizens”. Nationalism brings countries and communities together that share a common identity. But to authors Adam Michnik and Elzbieta Matynia, nationalism is “not the struggle for one’s own national rights, but a disregard for someone else right to national and human dignity.” These two authors believe that nationalism is shown through intolerance for another ethnicity or heritage outside the homeland. With nationalism though, national symbols are created: anthems, flags, myths and tales. These symbols create nations and bond people together to a heritage.

In today’s society Donald Trump shows beliefs in Nationalism in a radical manor. When he expresses his slogan “Make America Great Again” he is showing this nationalist appeal. Donald Trumps ideals surround America First policies, this is shown through his travel ban attempts and seizing of land and exports from middle Eastern countries. Trump is trying to create an American image within the Unites States and trying to eliminate other ethnicities, creating a nationalistic appeal.

Key Historical Components:
People who champion ism: Napoleon Bonaparte promoted nationalism within Europe based upon French Revolutionary ideals: liberty, equality and fraternity. Napoleon reign from 1796-1814 and he would invade countries, claim land, then spreading his values and ideals of the French.

An event from the past that shows nationalism prevailing negatively is in Quebec. Quebec began a campaign in 2013 to remove “conspicuous” religious symbols in the workplace. This campaign was the Charter of Values, this charter states that religious symbols were seen to intimidate individuals seeking services. Religious symbols such as the turban, hijab and kippah, as well as any large crosses and religious pendants would be prohibited, but small rings and earrings with religious ideologies were allowed. This was an attempt to modernize religions and take away cultural identities that were not Canadian. Past and present issues need to reevaluate their values and see that nationalism is not for the means of stripping someone of their ethnicity but rather bringing alike communities together. The history of nationalism influenced this contemporary issues and beliefs because we are beginning to radicalize the concept once again, waging war.

 

Bianca Coleman

 

Bibliography

Definition of nationalism: http://www.etymonline.com/word/nationalism
MICHNIK, ADAM, and Elzbieta Matynia. “Nationalism.” Social Research 58, no. 4 (1991): 757-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40970671 .

Cudmore, Jaimie. “OVERT AND CONSPICUOUS IDENTITIES: SECULARISM AND RELIGIOUS HERITAGE AS TOOLS OF IDENTITY NARRATION IN QUEBEC.” Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review 26, no. 1 (2014): 38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24347595 .

De Las Casas, Gustavo. “Is Nationalism Good for You?” Foreign Policy , no. 165 (2008): 50-56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25462272 .

Identification 

There isn’t one singular definition of terrorism that is universally accepted, but the most common definition is “the deliberate use of violence and intimidation directed at a large audience to coerce a community into conceding politically or ideologically motivated demands”. There are two types of terrorism, domestic or transnational. There are many hypotheses as to why terrorism exists such as economic deprivation, global order, institutional order, political transformation, and identity conflict. Some people believe that transnational terrorism comes from resentment towards wealthier countries.

Historical significance 

Terrorism is important because it has become an even bigger issue today than it was before. Over the years, the number of terrorist attacks have increased significantly. Many of the recent terrorist attacks have been claimed to be done by the Islamic extremist group, ISIS. These recent events and the history of terrorism has caused some people to become prejudice towards people that they think are Muslim. Due to ignorance, many people assume that all people that look Middle Eastern could be terrorists. This -ism may help to explain some people’s beliefs on who they think are terrorists and what is a terrorist attack. It could also help to explain why people may show prejudice towards a certain group of people.

Key historical proponents 

Former president of the United States, George W. Bush, is typically associated with attacking terrorism. A series of attacks took place in the United States on September 11, 2001, where Islamic extremists hijacked four commercial airplanes to carry out suicide attacks. This terrorist attack happened only 8 months after George Bush became president. Following the terrorist attack, George Bush launched a war on terrorism. He referred to the attack as “evil acts” and asked for international cooperation to win the war against terrorism. Osama bin Laden was the founder of the Islamic extremist group, Al-Qaeda, and is typically associated with championing terrorism. Al-Qaeda was responsible for the series of attacks on September 11.

Christina Wu

 

Bibliography

Abadie, Alberto. “Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism.” The American Economic Review, vol. 96, no. 2, 2006, pp. 50–56. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034613.

Cady, Linell E. “Religious Resonances in Bush’s ‘War on Terrorism.’” American Journal of Theology & Philosophy, vol. 29, no. 2, 2008, pp. 184–204. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27944441.

Hoffman, Bruce. “The Myth of Grass-Roots Terrorism: Why Osama Bin Laden Still Matters.” Foreign Affairs, vol. 87, no. 3, 2008, pp. 133–138. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20032656.

Kaplan, Jeffrey. “History and Terrorism.” The Journal of American History, vol. 98, no. 1, 2011, pp. 101–105. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41509052.

Krieger, Tim, and Daniel Meierrieks. “What Causes Terrorism?” Public Choice, vol. 147, no. 1/2, 2011, pp. 3–27. JSTOR, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41483643.

Sageman, Marc. Turning to political violence: the emergence of terrorism. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017.

Wieviorka, Michel. The making of terrorism. University of Chicago Press, 2004.