Adam Mickiewicz

Dec 24, 1798 – Nov 26, 1855

Adam Mickiewicz was a Pole, born in 1798, on grounds taken over by the Russian Empire. He lived during the World War II, and the Nazi Occupation. This was a time when Poland was fighting for their independance. Poland’s existence, was under a lot of pressure. Adam Mickiewicz took the events of World War II, and the effect that the events had on humanity, and he turned it into beautiful poetry.

Adam Mickiewicz was a Polish poet, who practically invented romanticism in Poland, and in Europe. Mickiewicz fought for Poland’s independence. He believed in patriotism, and religion above all other. Adam Mickiewicz was able to bring poetry into life. He understood humanity, and nature. He gave Poland hope during the nazi occupation. Roman Koropeckyj states, “His name served as a point of reference whenever the survival of the polish nation was at stake, and whenever ideas about its fate needed legitimation” (Koropeckyj, Preface, ix) Poland’s independence, and patriotism was highly influenced by Adam Mickiewicz. He inspired many Poles to fight, and to never give up on their country.

His two most finest poems are, Dziady, and Pan Tadeusz. Pan Tadeusz has become the national epic poem of Poland. In his poems he intertwines, horror, and death with nationality, and patriotism. His poems are clear, and pure. Adam Mickiewicz was greatly inspired by Byron. Adam Mickiewicz was not afraid to say what he thinks, and feels. His poem, Dziady was banned because, it made the russians uncomfortable due to the poems anti-russian remarks. His poems embrace religion, nationalism, patriotism, and humanity. His poems taught the world how to love, and respect a country. He inspired people to do everything, and anything for their heritage, and country.

Adam Mickiewicz earned his historical significance by being a great poet, as well as being a great enforcer of nationalism. He was interested in politics, and always fought for the good of the people. His fight for Poland’s independence, and his love for his country is what inspired many others. His poems touched the hearts, and lives of people universally. His spirit, and emotions influenced, and changed patriotism all around the world. His thoughts, ideas, and words; his poems, embraced all humanity. Manfred states, “ Mickiewicz always united the Polish cause with that of the whole of humanity and never lowered his ideals to the level of narrow nationalism” (Manfred, 355). Thus, his poems were universal. He rejected separatism, and embraced unionization. Mickiewicz did not discriminate, he believed all people deserve rights, and freedom. He stood up for humanity. Mickiewicz understood social, and political problems nationwide. While fighting for independence, he was also fighting for liberation.

 

The name Mickiewicz has become a well known and well respected name. Adam Mickiewicz has caught the attention of many other historical figures. For instance, M azzini Giuseppe described Mickiewicz as, “more than a poet: a prophet” (Nagorski, p.99). Today, Poland thanks Adam Mickiewicz for fighting for Poland, and for inspiring others to fight. Kridl Manfred states, “He is the main spiritual source of modern Polish patriotism…” (Manfred, 359) His writings, have made Poland’s patriotism, and religion into what it is today. On the global level, Adam Mickiewicz transformed Romanticism and made it his own. He was a genius who brought poetry to life. His works are raw, beautiful, and relatable.

Agnieszka Prymicz

 

Works Cited

Blum, George P. “Nazism.” Salem Press Encyclopedia (2017): Research Starters , (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=1b322f79-493 b-4f45-9f71-caf282391ae1%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcG U9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=96397535&db=ers

Cochran, Peter. “Roman Koropeckyj. Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic.” Pushkin Review 11 (2008): 193+. Literature Resource Center (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster& v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA259467591&asid=57a63f42b6a65c30939f362d72e68946 .

Kridl, Manfred. “Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855).” American Slavic and East European Review 7, no. 4 (1948): 340-60. (accessed November 9, 2017).

Click to access 2491889.pdf

Nagórski, Zygmunt. “The Adam Mickiewicz Year.” The Polish Review 1, no. 1 (1956): 99-107. (accessed November 9, 2017).

http://www.jstor.org/stable/25776032 .

Trencsenyi, B., Kopecek, M. “National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements.” Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe (2007):1770–1945,
(accessed November 9, 2017).

http://books.openedition.org/ceup/2229

Koropeckyj, Robert. “Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic” Cornell University Press (2008). (accessed November 9, 2017).

https://quod-lib-umich-edu.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;idno=heb32418#

Other relevant reading(s):

Zakrzewski, Christopher A. “Pan Tadeusz.” Sarmatian Review 35, no. 3 (2015): 1939+. Academic OneFile (accessed November 10, 2017).

http://go.galegroup.com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=ocul_mcmaster &v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA428998858&sid=ebsco&asid=86482ef42efa557512312e609442f d1b .

Gustave Flaubert

Gustave Flaubert was a French novelist. He was born and died in Rouen, France, on the 12^th of December 1821 and the 8^th of May 1880, respectively.  He is most widely known for his novel Madame Bovary, which was published in 1857. After completing his secondary studies at a Lycée in Rouen, he studied law in Paris, but was a despondent student and disliked the city. He gave up law in 1846. (brown 2006) Flaubert is most commonly recognized as a pioneer of the literary movement of Realism. Realism is generally more concerned with the everyday and commonplace aspects of life, and defined predominantly by the precision and care with which the work is constructed. This is in contrast to the preceding era of Victorian literature (which was usually darker and concerned with the grittier aspects of life, and in which the forces of nature contributed greatly to the plot.) Although he was a great realist, there are also prominent aspects of romanticism in his work. As a writer, Flaubert was deeply influenced by the Marquis de Sade, which may seem surprising simply based on the difference in the subjects of their novels. However, over the course of his life, Flaubert returned to de Sade many times – as he was so intrigued by de Sade’s ability to depict physical agony in an artful way that these themes come to the surface in several of Flaubert’s works (for example, Emma’s suicide by arsenic poisoning in Madame Bovary.) (Wall 2007) Flaubert’s style of prose has been described by Vladimir Nobokov as “[a] kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author’s private sentiments […] the legacy of his work habits can best be described […] as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing.” (Nobokov 1980) This kind of precise, slow, self-reflective writing Flaubert is known for is perhaps a response to the criticism his first version of his novel The Temptation of Saint Anthony (1849) received. The Temptation of Saint Anthony is a distinctly fantastical novel, its is Flaubert’s attempt to create a Faust in French, and because it did not initially receive any praise, Flaubert may have changed his writing to focus on more everyday subjects in response to this. (Leal 1990) His writing style did no come naturally to him, as he describes in some of his personal correspondence, but instead was painstakingly constructed. (Flaubert 1980) His most famous and influential novel, Madame Bovary was quite shocking when it was first published, as it depicts a middle-class (bourgeoisie) French woman as breaking the moulds of what was expected of a wife at the time, and giving herself over to passion and foolishness. (Flaubert 2004) This novel is a rather feminist interpretation of the 19^th century woman, although it is not at all glowing. Flaubert recognizes the cage of domesticity that many women were confined to, and a woman’s inability to flee her unsatisfying life without the help of a man. (Flaubert 2004) Flaubert’s construction of a new way of writing a novel influenced many authors who came after him, very notably Franz Kafka. Kafka was deeply influenced by Flaubert’s method of introspective and precise writing, so much so that their attitudes towards the connection between literature and the self were very similar. Kafka was so touched by Flaubert’s attitude towards the painstaking creative process that both writers had a similar method of creating. (Bernheimer 1982) Because of his marrying of realism and romanticism many writers influenced by either movement can trace their influence to Flaubert and his style. Flaubert’s creation of what could be called the modern novel has influenced many writers, as his perfectionist style of realist narration was so captivating. His method of structuring his writing was so influential that many 21^st century readers are so familiar with his influence that it is hard to notice. (Wood, 2009) In terms of literary style, narration, and prose, there was most definitely a time before Flaubert and a time after him.

Astrid Moore

Works Cited

Bernheimer, Charles. Flaubert and Kafka: Studies in Psychopoetic Structure. Yale University Press, 1982.

Brown, Frederick. Flaubert: A Biography. Little Brown, 2006.

Flaubert, Gustave. The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880. Edited by Francis Steegmuller. Harvard University Press, 1980.

Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Leal, R.B. “The Unity of Flaubert’s ‘Tentation de saint Antoine (1874)’”. The Modern Language Review, 85(2). 1990.

Nobokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Literature, Volume 1. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.

Wall, Geoffrey. Thinking with Demons: Flaubert and de Sade. The Cambridge Quarterly, 36(2). Oxford University Press, 2007.

Wood, James. How Fiction Works. Vintage Books, 2009.

Other Relevant Reading

Burton, Richard D.E. The death of politics: the significance of Dambreuse’s funeral in ‘L’Education sentimentale’. French Studies, 50(2). The Society for French Studies, 1996.

De Baisi, Pierre-Marc. Gustave Flaubert : Une Manière Spéciale De Vivre. Paris: B. Grasset, 2009.

Denis Diderot

1713-1784

Denis Diderot was born on October 5, 1713 in Langres, France and died on July 31, 1784 in Paris, France (Verma, 1984, 808). He was a prominent writer and major philosopher of the Enlightenment Era (Holt, 2000, 19) who published many critical thoughts on religion, politics, art, philosophy, and science. Growing up in Langres, Diderot received a Jesuit education in the hopes that he would join the clergy in his future (Verma, 1984, 808). However he later gave up his Jesuit education to go and study law in Paris (Verma, 1984, 809). While in Paris studying he met and befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a famous French philosopher (Verma, 1984, 809).This friendship had an impact on Diderot’s life as the two became close and frequently discussed philosophical matters. (Verma, 1984, 809). Diderot later on encouraged Rousseau to participate in an essay contest held by L’Academie de Dijon which was about whether the progress of sciences and arts purified or corrupted morals (Verma, 1984, 809). The essay was vital for their friendship as it further enhanced philosophical knowledge for the both of them. Also around this time Diderot decided to drop his studies in law and went on to learn Latin, English, mathematics, and sciences (Verma, 1984, 808). From this he became a writer translating non-French books to French such as the Medical Dictionary by Robert James (Verma, 1984, 809). Diderot also produced his own original works such as Philosophical Thoughts (1746), The Skeptics Walk (1947), and Letters on the Blind for those who see (1749). Many of his books revolved around important philosophical thought of his time and included analysis on deism, rationalism, materialism, and religion. Such analysis was controversial during this time and his works usually ended him up in prison (Verma, 1984, 809). While working as a writer he was approached by French Publisher Andre Francis Le Breton who made Diderot the most important offer in his life. Breton wanted Diderot to translate Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopedia or, an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences to French as it was of great importance to the progression and organization of knowledge (Verma, 1984, 809). Diderot agreed not only to translate it, but to also “prepare a more original and extensive one” (Verma, 1984, 809). On October 16, 1747 Diderot paired up with Jean le Rond d’Almbert to begin publishing the Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire Raisonne’ des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Verma, 1984, 809). There was also continual work and revisions on the Encycloopedie that lasted from 1751-1777 (Perovic, 2011, 14). The Encyclopedie in whole would contain 32 volumes with over 70,000 articles and diagrams on the sciences, the arts, religion, politics, philosophy, technology, medicine, and mathematics (Perovic, 2011, 14).Furthermore it had over 140 contributors who were prominent writers and philosophers of the Enlightenment (Kafker, 1973, 452). These contributors were called encyclopaedists and included names such as Voltaire, Rousseau, d’Holbach, and Montesquieu. The encyclopaedists were also keen in literature, painting, music, phisics, chemistry, epistemology, and metaphysics (Kafker, 1963, 152).  In total, the Encyclopedie encompassed the knowledge of everything that was known about the natural, social, and spiritual world. The purpose of the Encyclopedie, as Diderot puts it, was “to collect all knowledge that now lies scattered over the face of the earth” (Rosenberg, 1999, 232). Such collection of Enlightenment thought and ideas was meant to be a manual of information that can be shared around the world and used by anyone (Verma, 1984, 810). The theories, discoveries, and analysis of empirical evidence provided critical insight about the world and its vast mysteries. The Encyclopedie also revealed many different and valuable perspectives about the world (Perovic, 2011, 18). Overall the Encyclopedie was based on reason and empirical evidence that pushed for a rational thought based approach to life that did not rely on superstition. The Encyclopedie also provided people with a basis of realistic knowledge that they can use to develop a further understanding about the world. This great progression of available information about the world created social shifts against religion, superstition, and the Old Regime. The ruling classes and the King decided to ban the Encyclopedie stating that the saturated knowledge was a threat to their roots (Verma, 1984, 810). The threat being that the Encyclopedie promoted liberty of conscience, questioned religion, and advocated limits on the French Kings power (Kafker, 1988, 86). However the ban was lifted by some ministers and Madame Pompadour allowing the production and the sales of the Encyclopedie to continue (Verma, 1984, 810). In conclusion the Encyclopedie (as stated) had great historical significance. It was one of the first works to combine empirical fact from around the world to form a common basis of knowledge that can be used by anyone. Furthermore the knowledge about the world that was published had a purpose of ensuring “the coming generations are greater in virtue and happiness” (Verma, 1984, 810). Adding on to this the Encyclopedie had a vital impact in the modern sense as it influenced modern encyclopedia’s and information collection sources, such as Wikipedia. Overall the Encyclopedie was one of the greatest contributions to the progression of knowledge and information.

Marco Minadeo

Works Cited

Kafker, F. A. (1963). Diderot’s Encyclopedia: A Call to Reason or to Arms. The Historian, 151-171.

Kafker, F. A. (1973). The Recruitment of the Encyclopedists. Eighteenth-Century Studies, 452-461.

Kafker, F. A. (1988). Some Observations on Five Interpretations of the “Encyclopédie”. Diderot Studies, 85-100.

Perovic, S. (2011). The Intelligible as a New World? Wikipedia versus the Eighteenth-Century “Encyclopédie”. Paragraph, 12-29.

Rosenberg, D. (1999). An Eighteenth-Century Time Machine: The “Encyclopedia” of Denis Diderot. Historical Reflections, 227-250.

Verma, L. B. (1984). Denis Diderot, the Encyclopaedist . Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 808-812.

Other Relevant Reading 

Holt, D. K. (2000). Denis Diderot and the Aesthetic Point of View. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 19-25.

     

George Sand

1804-1876

Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin was a French novelist who wrote under the pseudonym of George Sand. Living during the general civil unrest of the 1800s, she took part in the socio-political movements of Europe, and expressed her views through her many literary works. Sand was the daughter of an aristocratic bastard and a prostitute. This put her in an interesting position: she received an aristocratic level education, thanks to her father, but was disposed to fight for equality for all people, thanks to her mother (What A Woman 72). Among many other things, Sand was a socialist, feminist, and romantic.

Sand, the socialist, had a clear view of what society should look like and expressed it in her novels (Moses 423). Sand’s works often depict characters of different social rankings coming together in love for one another; they effectively abandon, or ignore, the imposed social hierarchy and try to pursue a life of community (Beyer, Kluck 206). For example, in her novel La Ville Noir, Sand explores the hardship of the working class, the challenges of romantic love, and the “dehumanizing” consequences created when compromising between the two (White 703). Her novels’ influence were far reaching; from USA and England to Russia and Hispanoamerica (Beyer, Kluck 206). She inspired many other writers from all areas of the world, such as Turgenev, Barry, Fuller, and Avellaneda, to write and disseminate socialist views (Beyer, Kluck 206). In addition, Sand supported change, but not top-down reforms. Instead, she believed the general masses would overcome inequalities of all kinds and evolve into a better and just society (Walton 1009).

Sand, the feminist, was not afraid to stand for what women deserved, but was also tactful in what items she pushed for. She was realistic. This meant she sometimes went against the mainstream feminist movement (Moses 423). Sand opposed mainstream liberal feminism, as she stated, “women should change popular attitudes through rational persuasion and gradual reforms before engaging in political activism,” (Walton 1014). For example, she championed equality in marriage, but not divorce; advocated female political involvement, but not women’s suffrage – she understood that conditions were not right and that society was not ready for such radical changes (Moses 423). She was criticized heavily for most of her stances; but she did set achievable and sensible goals for women to strive towards. For example, in the 1848 Revolutions, Sand, alongside many others, fought for the “ability for women to sustain their families through waged as well as household labour…not in suffrage, but in women’s capacity to act as both producers and consumers under just and equitable conditions,” (DeGroat 399). Furthermore, in her novels she demonized the oppressive patriarchy by showing how it harmed and limited both her female and male characters (Beyer, Kluck 206). Likewise, Sand riskily challenged gender norms imposed on her by cross-dressing, smoking cigars, having multiple love affairs, and even by choosing George Sand as her pseudonym (What A Woman 72).

Sand, the romantic, countered “masculinist romanticism” and offered the female meaning of romanticism. For men, melancholy poetry, culture, and nature were at the forefront of romanticism. For Sand, however, as for many other female romantics, romanticism was a way to abandon the self “through historical, political, and spiritual efforts” and work to unite the people (Zonana 176). Whereas male romanticism focused on admiration of grand concepts, female romanticism tended to be more individual in scope – more direct and action based (Dale 83). Novels were at the forefront of female romanticism. With her plots and characters, Sand explored social issues through a “female sensibility” (Zonana 177). She held deeply humanistic beliefs that promoted solidarity, progress, and which discouraged violence; she believed in acting for her cause (Grossman 20). Moreover, in her novel La Petite Fadette, Sand explores her “ideal community” by asserting the ideal person: one with “a quick mind and a tender heart”; a person who accepts and exhibits the best aspects inherent to men and women (Grossman 25). Similarly, she was attracted to the “universal religion” proclaimed by two French priests which promoted human progress and unity, she made efforts to politicize it, and was also opposed to religious persecution (Dale 82). Further, she believed artists had a mission to guide humanity towards new heights; thus, making them some of the most crucial members of society (Dale 98). Art, which expresses truth and emotion, and inspires change, was the most powerful tool for Sand, one which she evidently took advantage of.

Sadly, with the failure of the 1848 revolutions and the realization that her ideal society would not come to pass, Sand, became more conservative and was less involved in the socio-political movements of the day (Moses 424). Her notoriety and infamy made her works more widespread; but today, her scandalous life is more well known than her literary contributions or her impact on social movements (What A Woman 72). Even so, she was a source of great inspiration for many, both within France and on a global scale.

Salomé Rodríguez Solarte

Works Cited

Beyer, Sandra and Frederick Kluck. “George Sand and Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda”.

Nineteenth-Century French Studies 19.2. (1991): 203-209. Web.

Dale, Catherine. “The Mirror of Romanticism: Images of Music, Religion and Art Criticism in

George Sand’s Eleventh ‘Lettre d’un Voyageur’ to Giacomo Meyerbeer,” The Romantic Review 87.1 (1996): 83-108. Web.

DeGroat, Judith. “Working-Class Women and Republicanism in the French Revolution of 1848,”

History of European Ideas 38.3 (2012): 399-407. Web.

Grossman, Kathryn. “The Ideal Community of George Sand’s La Petite Fadette,” Utopian 

Studies 6.1. (1995): 19-29. Web.

Moses, Claire. “Eve’s Proud Descendants” The Journal of Modern History 75.2.

(2003): 422-424. Web.

Walton, Whitney. “Writing the 1848 Revolution: Politics, Gender, and Feminism in the Works

of French Women of Letters,” French Historical Studies 18.4. (1994): 1001-1024. Web.

“What A Woman; George Sand,” The Economist 372.8386 (2004): 72-73. Web.

White, Claire. “Labour of Love: George Sand’s La Ville Noire and Emile Zola’s Travail,” The 

Modern Language Review 106.3. (2011): 697-708. Web.

Zonana, Joyce. “Tracing Women’s Romanticism.” Tulsa’s Studies in Women’s Literature 27.1.

(2008): 176-177. Web.

Other Relevant Reading

Barry, Joseph. “Infamous Woman: The Life of George Sand,” Our Image (n.a.) (1977): 19. Web.

Brown, Penny. “The Reception of George Sand in Spain,” Comparative Literature Studies 25.3.

(1988): 203-224. Web.

Mitzman, Arthur. “Michelet and Social Romanticism: Religion, Revolution, Mature,” Journal Of 

the History of Ideas 57.4 (1996): 659-682. Web.

Richards, L.F Sylvie. “Finding Her Own Voice: George Sand’s Autobiography,” Women’s 

Studies An Interdisciplinary Journal 22. (1993): 137-144. Web.

Alexander Pushkin

June 6, 1799 – Feb 10, 1837

Alexander Pushkin was an 18th century Russian poet, playwright and novelist. At the height of his career during the Romantic Era, Pushkin would go on to be considered the founder of modern Russian literature. Alexander Pushkin was born in Moscow, Russia on June 6th 1799 into a noble family. Pushkin began writing at an extremely early age, publishing his first poem at 15. Given the political tensions of the Tsar regime, Pushkin was unable to openly publish his work (Blagoy, 2016). Pushkin became involved with social reform during 1820, serving as spokesperson for literary radicals. Pushkin’s radical work reflected that of the emerging ideas of political rationalism and the emphasis on civic freedom (Bethea, 1998). Pushkin’s work reflected his Romanticist ideologies which opposed the Tsar monarch and stressed the important of liberty (Druzhnikov, 1999). Pieces such as ‘The Prisoner of the Causcasus’ and ‘The Robber Brothers’ mirrored Pushkin’s affinity for romantic narratives with underlying political connotations (Beathea, 1998). The Russian Tsar soon came to hear of Pushkin’s literary work which was wildly consumed by the Russian youth of the era, cumulating in the exile of Pushkin to Siberia in April 1820. Pushkin’s exile provided inspiration which was channeled into creative literature focusing on varying forms of novel prose and poetry, creating renowned pieces such as ‘Yevgeny Onegin’. ‘Yevgeny Onegin’ explored the social and environmental pressures influencing an ideal Russian way of life (Brown, 1986). Pushkin’s work was innovative due to his unapologetic way of painting his stories in tradition Russia, objectifying his nationalism, versus other writers who prefer exotic locations as the setting of their literature. During his exile, Pushkin was moved from Siberia to Mikhaylovskoye. Although Pushkin was incredibly depressed during his time at Mikhaylovskoye, this era brought about his most productive work. His isolation caused him to critically study Russian history (Briggs, 1983). Through his research, he was particularly moved by the records of Russian peasants in particular (Debreczeny, 1997). This newfound knowledge was reflected in his writing as he began to move away from earlier ‘southern’ melodious pieces and created a simple yet fast-paced style (Sandler, 1989). This difference symbolized the influence of his examination of Russian classism. His writing began to mirror the ‘for the people’ ideals that was emerging in French theater, rejecting neoclassicism (Zaki, 2016). Pushkin emphasized the moral and political implications of the ruling class, the Tsar, versus the masses, the Russian people (Vernadsky, 1953). By the spring of 1826, Pushkin petitioned to be pardoned from exile and his motion was granted with strict guidelines which stated that Pushkin was not to partake in publications of any kind. To oppose this condition, Pushkin travelled towards Caucasus, situating in Chisinau, Russia where he became a Freemason (Blagoy, 2016). Between 1829 and 1836, Pushkin’s writing had finally reached full potential. Pieces such as ‘The Covetous Knight’ and ‘The Stone Guest’, brought about critical acclaim due to their profound sensibility paired with Pushkin’s ability to accurately recant the essence of the historical epochs he chose to write about (Brown, 1986). Alexander Pushkin died on February 10th 1837 after a fatal duel brought about by George-Charles de Heeckeren d’Anthès, his brother in law, attempts to seduce Pushkin’s wife, Natalia Pushkina (Feinstein, 1999). Overall, Pushkin’s work hold great historical significance due to the reoccurring themes such as civic responsibility, conscious reason and vigor paired with literary excellence. Alexander Pushkin’s notable contributions to Russian literature as well as modern works have led him to be considered the Greatest Russian poet.

 

Vipushi Sivanesanathan 

 

Works Cited

Bethea, David M. Realizing metaphors: Alexander Pushkin and the life of the poet. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1998.

Blagoy, Dimitry Dimitriyevich. “Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 15 Nov. 2016, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-

Sergeyevich-Pushkin. 1986.

Briggs, Anthony DP. Alexander Pushkin: a critical study. Rowman & Littlefield, 1983.

A history of Russian literature of the romantic period. Vol. 4. Ardis,

Brown, William Edward. A History of Russian Literature

Debreczeny, Paul.Social functions of literature: Alexander Pushkin and Russian culture. Prisoner of Russia: Alexander Pushkin and the Political Uses of Nationalism.

Feinstein, Elaine. Pushkin: a biography. Ecco Press, 1999.

Sandler, Stephanie. Distant Pleasures: Alexander Pushkin and the Writing of Exile. Stanford

The mongols and russia. Vol. 97. New Haven: Yale

 

Brown, William Edward.

 

Wisconsin Press, 1998.

Debreczeny, Paul.

Stanford University Press, 1997.

Druzhnikov, I︠ U︡ riĭ.

Transaction Publishers, 1999.

Sandler, Stephanie.

University Press, 1989.

Vernadsky, George, and Michael Karpovich.

University Press, 1953.

Zaki, Fadi. “Neoclassical Art Movement.” Identify This Art – Your Guide through the Art

Movements, 3 Feb. 2016, http://www.identifythisart.com/art-movements-styles/pre-modern-

art/neoclassical-art-movement/.

Walter Benjamin

July 1892- Sept 1940

Walter Benjamin, a German Jew, lived in the unluckiest time and place: Germany, at the turn of the 20th Century. History could not have chosen a more unfavourable time for Benjamin to be born; combining his race, religion and radical ideas with cultural change and growing hatred against Jews. Benjamin was a writer and philosopher who committed suicide in 1940 while trying to escape the Nazi’s. His ideas were a mix of marxism, German idealism, Romanticism, and Jewish mysticism. He was a devout religious man, believing Judaism to be the highest form of spirituality, and opposing what he called “capitalist religion” (Robinson, Andrew). His ideas opposing modernity and capitalism were profound, and have added to marxist ideology. He was friends with famous figures such as Theodor Adorno and Hannah Arendt. From 1933-1940, he spent his days exiled in France, where he produced some of his most famous pieces before his death (Wolfe, Ross.).

Benjamin felt alienation from German writers, and instead tended towards the culture and ideas of France thinkers (Benjamin, Walter et al.). France was emerging from the tides of revolution, switching power throughout the 1800s from free Republic to ruled Empire. In the late 19th Century, French thinkers were moving more towards Realism, and away from Romanticism. However, Benjamin would have felt more at home amongst the Romantics and Symbolists, who valued human emotion and traditional religious values. He also wrote about the “concept of criticism in German Romanticism,” combining ideas from the Enlightenment and Romanticism (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin).

In Walter Benjamin’s “Theses on History,” he explains marxism as a response to capitalism that has become a religion in France. He saw how capitalism changed the very fabric of cultural life and even the experience of time. Walter’s idea of homogeneous empty time occurs when moments are viewed as equal and interchangeable along a continuum. Empty time lacks any differentiation and special moments that give life meaning (Robinson, Andrew). This form of time is a result of capitalism, and creates an empty existence with no meaning, as labour and commodities are continually measured, used and replaced. Benjamin contrasts this empty existence with the jetztzeit, or “now time,” that exists in “messianic time” (Robinson, Andrew). In messianic time, all of history is compressed into a single moment in time, and real truth can be seen. Benjamin relates this to social movements and revolutions, as all past failed struggles are fulfilled in one messianic moment of redemption. History can only be understood through the lens of immediacy and redemption (Robinson, Andrew).

This was Benjamin’s philosophical reasoning for his marxist views on revolution. His ideas are such a wild mix of religious, political and romantic ideas. Reading his work transports one immediately to the social context in which he lived, yet his ideas transcend time. Benjamin’s writing itself is descriptive and vivid, you can see what he saw. For example, Benjamin starts his text, Berlin Childhood Around 1900, by a vivid description of his childhood home:

“The caryatids… may have [sung] a lullaby beside that cradle- a song containing little of what later awaited me, but nonetheless surrounding the theme through which the air of the courtyards has forever remained intoxicating to me… and it is precisely this air that sustains the images and allegories which preside over my thinking, just as the caryatids, from the heights of their loggias, preside over the courtyards of Berlin’s West End.” (Walter, Bullock, and Jennings. )

He switches in this quote from past to present, pulling the air of the courtyards throughout time and portraying his childhood innocence and adult awakening, connected by a common theme of the caryatids. In the same way, he views history as connecting through time with a common thread of revolution and messianic redemption.

What he considered his greatest work, left unfinished when he died, was the Arcades Project (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin). It was a series of observations on the Paris Arcades, the beautiful glass arches that cased the products of modernity and technological advances of his time (Schwartz, Vanessa R.). He used this project to portray the meaninglessness of bourgeois life, and communicate his marxist ideas. Benjamin did not view this collection as merely observations, but a blueprint for the ideal city, and wrote in a letter that he wished to apply his observations to the city (Walter, Eiland, and McLaughlin). He always considered his work more important than even his life, demonstrated by how he lugged a suitcase of writings over the mountains when trying to escape from the Nazi’s (Limone, Noa). His tragic death left many of his pieces unfinished, but as his friends and colleagues sorted through the writings he had left, it was only then that the world saw the true brilliance of this philosopher and his ideas became famous.

Veronica Klassen

Works Cited

Ball, David. “Walter Benjamin.” Ambit, no. 185, 2006, pp. 22–22. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/44336533.

Benjamin, Walter, Marcus Paul Bullock, and Michael William Jennings. (2003). Walter 

Benjamin: Selected Writings Volume 3 1935-1938. Harvard University Press.

Benjamin, Walter, Howard Eiland, and Kevin McLaughlin. The Arcades Project. Harvard

University Press, 1999.

Cohen, Josh. “Phenomenologies of Mourning: Gillian Rose and Walter Benjamin.” Women: A 

Cultural Review, vol. 9, 1998, pp. 47–61., doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09574049808578334.

Clark, T.J. “Reservations of the Marvellous.” London Review of Books, London Review of

Books, 21 June 2000, www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n12/tj-clark/reservations-of-the- marvellous.

Jeffries, Stuart. “Walter Benjamin: A Critical Life Review – Gambler, Womaniser, Thinker.”

The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 7 Aug. 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/07/walter-benjamin-critical-life-howard- eiland-michael-w-jennings-review.

Limone, Noa. “Chronicling Walter Benjamin’s Final Hours.” Haaretz.com, 7 Apr. 2013,

www.haaretz.com/chronicling-walter-benjamin-s-final-hours-1.449897.

Robinson, Andrew. “Walter Benjamin: Messianism and Revolution – Theses on

History.”Ceasefire Magazine, 30 Nov. 2013,

ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/walter-benjamin-messianism-revolution-theses-history/.

Schwartz, Vanessa R. “Walter Benjamin for Historians.” The American Historical Review, vol. 106, no. 5, 2001, pp. 1721–1743. JSTOR,  www.jstor.org/stable/2692744.

Wolfe, Ross. “Walter Benjamin’s Writings in German and in English.” The Charnel-House, 9 Jan. 2017,thecharnelhouse.org/2015/12/10/walter-benjamins-writings-in-german- and-in-english/.

Other Relevant Reading

Gilloch, Graeme. “Three Biographical Studies of Walter Benjamin — Walter Benjamin. Eine

Biographie by Werner Fuld / Spinne Im Eigenen Netz. Walter Benjamin: Leben Und Werk by Momme Brodersen / Benjaminiana Edited by Hans Puttnies and Gary Smith.” Telos, no. 91, 1992, pp. 173, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS); Politics Collection; Sociology Collection, libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/214365417?accountid=12347

Wohlfarth, Irving. No-Man’s-Land: On Walter Benjamin’s ‘Destructive Character’ in Walter 

Benjamin’s Philosophy, Benjamin, Andrew (Ed). Routledge, 1994, Philosopher’s Index,

libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/42793130?accountid=12347.