Benito Mussolini

July 29^th, 1883 – April 28^th, 1945

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Predappio Italy, his father was a blacksmith and a socialist journalist, and his mother was a primary school teacher. Mussolini received a formidable education and was able to graduate with a teaching diploma. He read the philosophical works of political thinkers such as Fredrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx¹, where he most likely formed his own political opinions. Mussolini was able to become politically active at a young age, where he would call for strikes and violence against the ruling elites¹. In March 1919, Mussolini was able to form the Fascist Party of Italy, they were able to gain much support from unemployed war veterans. Benito Mussolini was able to form these veterans into armed squads known as the black shirts, who were notorious for terrorizing their political opponents². Mussolini was able to successfully work his way up to the position of Prime Minister, which was offered by King Emmanuel III in 1922¹. He slowly dismantled the democratic systems within Italy, until eventually he had created his own dictatorship with himself the sole individual in power¹. By the time he was 42, he was already the fascist dictator of Italy, his rule even being praised by western leaders of the time such as Winston Churchill, who believed that a return to order was needed¹. Mussolini grew increasingly ambitious, and hungered for even more power. In 1935, he launched a campaign against Ethiopia to further Italy’s colonial holdings, they were successful in their invasion, but Mussolini’s aggressive actions caused him to be denounced by much of the western world. Due to Italy’s reputation after the invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini then decided to side with Hitler during World War II. Not long after, in 1945 Mussolini was abandoned with just a handful of men, which lead to his capture and subsequent execution. The early 20^th century was a trying time for Italy, they were also a country that got hit heavily by the great depression, so there were many citizens who were looking for answers, and were upset with their government because they felt like they had failed them². This anger and discontent created the perfect climate for Benito Mussolini to rise. He was a strong, charismatic figure who was able to rally others into violent opposition of the Italian government. What Mussolini was able to do In Italy became a common trend across Europe, soon Germany followed with Adolf Hitler, along with Spain, who turned to a fascist leader Francisco Franco. The impact that Mussolini had can still be felt to this day, not only did he pave the way for fascist dictators like Hitler and Franco to rise, but his extreme nationalism and aggressive foreign policy contributed to World War II, one of the most destructive and bloodiest world conflicts in the world’s history¹. Mussolini’s influence has reached beyond his own years however, as every July 29^th, due to said date being Mussolini’s birthday, thousands of tourists from around the world, typically those who are involved in far right-wing circles, travel to Predappio to celebrate the life of Mussolini⁴. It is a major source of income for the city of Predappio, many shops sell souvenirs, along with t-shirts that portray Mussolini’s likeness on t-shirts⁴. Though the consensus is that Mussolini is dead, and along with him died fascism, it is clear to see that his influence still reaches people nearly 80 years later, as many flock to his birthplace to celebrate him, and to praise what he did throughout his life⁴.

Spencer Sullivan

Bibliography

Lorenzini, Pietro. “Benito Mussolini.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 2017.

“History – Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945).” BBC. Accessed November 08, 2017. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml.

Richardson, Charles O. “The Rome Accords of January 1935 and the Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War.” The Historian 41, no. 1 (1978): 41-58. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1978.tb01227.x.

Paradiso, Max. “The Polite Cult of Mussolini.” New Statesman 146, no. 5382, 13-14.

Gilbert, Martin. “The Rise of Fascism in Europe in the twentieth century: lessons for today .” India International Centre Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2002): 31-38.

Other Relevant Reading

Bruckner, Tim A., Andrew Noymer, and Ralph A. Catalano. “Life Expectancy during the Great Depression in Eleven European Countries.” Population and Development Review 39, no. 1 (2013): 57-74. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00573.x.

Nelis, Jan. “Constructing Fascist Identity: Benito Mussolini and the Myth of Romanità.” Classical World 100, no. 4 (2007): 391-415. doi:10.1353/clw.2007.0069.

Albert Camus

November 7, 1913-January 4, 1960

Albert Camus was a French novelist, essayist and playwright. He was born on November 7, 1913 in a small Algerian city of Mondovi to Lucien and Catherine Camus. Albert Camus had a quite difficult childhood. He was raised in a poor family and suffered two big losses with his father dying in World War I and his mother suffering a stroke which left her disabled. Tough conditions which Camus had to go through in his youth taught him to value independence and personal responsibility. Camus did very well in grammar school and developed a profound interest in philosophy and literature in the prestigious school Grand Lycée of Algiers. Before his move to Nazi occupied France in 1942 where he joined the French Resistance, he worked as a journalist in Algiers and became involved with a theatrical troupe there, first as an actor and then as a playwright and director. In 1938 he temporarily joined Algerian Communist Party, but he soon lost his belief in communism which later greatly influenced his political opinions. (Campion, p.1) In 1957 Albert Camus was granted a Nobel prize for Literature at the age of 43. (Royal, p.26) He died in a car accident on January 4th, 1960. (Leroux, p.204) Before his death, Camus wrote numerous works that still fascinate readers around the world. Major works of his such as The Stranger, 1946; The Myth of Sisyphus, 1942; The Plague 1947; and The Rebel, 1951 were published in the 40s and 50s, during the outbreaks of Nazism, Stalinism and colonial exploitation which had a very important context in Camus’s works. The Stranger is a first-person narrative in which the main character, Meursault, an Algerian office worker, is alienated from society. Raymond, a close friend of Meursault is a pimp.  Meursault kills an Arab who has been following Raymond and although Meursault is obviously guilty, he never receives a fair trial due to corrupt lawyer and the judge. This novel ridicules flaws of French judicial system and legal injustices committed by the Nazis in occupied France. (Campion, p.1) The Myth of Sisyphus is based on Greek mythology where Sisyphus was punished for eternity to push a large rock to the top of a mountain and every time he reached the summit, his rock would roll back into the valley. Camus imagined that Sisyphus was being punished because he had rebelled against the power of the gods and despite his absurd task, he would never give up and repeat his task repeatedly. Many readers see Sisyphus as a metaphor of the French Resistance against Nazis which Camus was a part of. (Campion, p.1) His novel The Plague is considered the most profound reflection on the evils of Nazism. Novel takes place in the walled Algerian city of Oran where the plague suddenly breaks out and the city is closed to prevent the plague from spreading to other cities. It is clear that the plague in this novel symbolizes Nazism and the closed walls of the city symbolize the closed borders of the countries occupied by Nazis. (Campion, p.1) Another work by Camus that worth being mentioned is The Rebel. The Rebel ranges widely over culture, politics and society and exposing evils of communists and fascists. In The Rebel he also criticized totalitarian regime and “crimes of logic” which were encouraged to be committed by Western intellectuals. (Royal, p.28) Albert Camus’s value of personal integrity and independence along with historical circumstances during his time such as Nazi occupation of France and French colonial rule in Algeria made him provide a deep insight on totalitarianism, colonial exploitation and political abuse. Camus’s ethical and political beliefs that he expressed throughout his works still inspire his readers to this day.

Valerii Kolesnikov

Works Cited

Adams, Harry Baker. “Dialogue between Theology and Modern Humanists: The Contribution of Albert Camus.” Encounter, vol. 26, no. 4, 1965, pp. 434-444. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0000704312&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Campion, Edmund J. “Albert Camus.” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88801288&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Leroux, Georges. “Between Sunshine and Shadow: The Legacy of Albert Camus.” Queen’s Quarterly, no. 2, 2010, EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.233126326&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Royal, Robert. “Camus between God and Nothing: Robert Royal Reflects on the Enduring Significance of Albert Camus One Hundred Years After His Birth.” First Things, vol. 239, Jan. 2014, pp. 25-30. EBSCOhost, libaccess.mcmaster.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001972658&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Zaretsky, Robert. “The Tragic Nostalgia of Albert Camus.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, no. 3, 2013, p. 55. EBSCOhost, doi:10.3167/hrrh.2013.390305.

Other Relevant Reading

Curzon-Hobson, Aidan. “Extending the Contribution of Albert Camus to Educational Thought: An Analysis of the Rebel.” Educational Philosophy & Theory, vol. 46, no. 10, Sept. 2014, pp. 1098-1110. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00131857.2013.795111.

Camus, Albert. The Rebel. 1951

Camus, Albert. The Stranger. 1942

Camus, Albert. The Plague. 1947

Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus.1942

Joseph Stalin

December 18th, 1878- March 5th, 1953

Dictator of the Union of Soviet Social Republics (from 1929 to 1953), Joseph Stalin- born name Josef Vissarionovich Dzugashvili- was able to transform the Soviet Union from a peasant and poor society into an industrial and military superpower (Hingley, 2016). Although creating a superpower, Stalin ruled by terror and millions died during his reign, ultimately leading to approximately 20 million deaths during his rule.

In Stalin’s early life, he obtained a scholarship to attend a seminary, which while there he started reading the work of social philosopher Karl Marx. He became interested in the revolutionary movement against Russia. He was kicked out of school in 1899 for “too many missed exams”- although it is argued it was for revolutionary action, his mother and the school argued other reasons. Once he left school, he not long after decided to become an underground political agitator. Stalin joined the wing of the Bolsheviks which eventually led to involvement in many criminal activities. Eventually he was subjected to imprisonment and exile to Siberia (Hingley, 2016).

In the 1920’s, Stalin had launched multiple “5-year plans” which were intended to transform the Soviet Union.  There was a series of three 5-year plans.

His plans were mainly centred on government control of the economy (which included government control of farms, or, “collectivization”). Any farmers that did not cooperate with Stalin were shot or exiled as a form of punishment (Hingley, 2016). Due to the collectivization, widespread famine occurred throughout the Soviet Union. Although the collectivization did not produce the economic results that were wanted, it was justified in of itself and can be seen as one of Stalin’s greatest achievements during his reign (Hingley, 2016). During this time, Stalin was still able to maintain export levels by shipping food out of the country, however rural residents were still dying by the thousands during this. Urbanization was brought up throughout the USSR during his rule and was continued even after his death. Due to Stalins policies, the agricultural and forestry engagement dropped from 56% to 42% within a span of 11 years (McKenney, 2017).

Stalin encouraged the spying amongst citizens as this way he was able to see who was obeying him and who was not. Stalin took away the right to free press, outside influence as well as dissent (Hingley, 2016).

During the Great Terror (1930’s), members of his cabined and government were targeted by Stalin himself if he found them a suspect of the danger of the ant-communist movement (Hingley, 2016). It was strongly encouraged during this time to turn citizens in. Anyone during this time who was suspected of being apart of the anti-communist movement was punished in the form of torture, exile or death.

Stalin was the mask behind instituting the Great Purge which was a series of campaigns whose goal was to rid the Communist party, military and other divisions of the Soviet society which were considered a “threat” to Stalin (McKenney, 2017). During the eve WWII, Stalin and Adolf Hitler signed a non-aggression act. However, in 1941 Germany broke the pact and invaded the USSR. Eventually Stalin led to the USSR defeating Germany from 1941-1945 and was able to extend Soviet controls through Eastern Europe (Hingley, 2016). Stalin joined allied powers with the United States and Great Britain once Hitler had invaded the Soviet Union (McKenney, 2017).

In order to stop German invasion, a “scorched earth” policy was created by Stalin (Hingley, 2016). This policy entailed burning all farms fields and villages in the path that would give German soldiers the upper hand in their invasions (as they would live off the land). Stalin had done this in hopes of the German supplies running low. Unfortunately, although strategic, this policy resulted in destruction of homes and livelihoods among the Russian population (Hingley, 2016).

Stalin has an elaborate bureaucratized administrative team which interlinked the communist party, ministries, trade unions, political police, armed forces etc (Hingley, 2016). Throughout Stalins reign and following his death, these parties still continues to benefit the management levels within the Society society, and for the most part, the individuals who controlled the levels throughout Stalins reign continued to do so after his death (McKenney, 2017). Thanks to Stalin, the USSR was introduced to the Atomic bomb which led to Stalin launching his own nuclear weapons program (Hingley, 2016).

Throughout his reign, Stalin’s actions could have been strongly influenced by the revolutions, wars and battles all going on during this time. Communism was on the rise, it was frowned upon to read into it, which as a kid when he initially started reading Marx’s works, would have made it all the more interesting to read (to see what all the fuss was about). When Marx’s ideas about and contested, Stalin was still at an age where his frame of mind could easily be impacted and changed. Seeing different allies and enemies as well as influential powers. Stalin created great historical significance among the USSR, and although historians still argue over what exactly that may be, we can see that his significance was mainly in military efforts. He provided the USSR with a strong and strategic military. He also gave many policies that impacted and shaped current policies.

Kelsey Loft

Works Cited

Hingley, Ronald Francis. “Joseph Stalin.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 7 Dec. 2016, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Stalin.

 

Stephanie L. McKinney, PhD, Contributing Writer. “How Did Stalin Build His Cult of Personality?” ThoughtCo, 3 Mar. 2017, http://www.thoughtco.com/joseph-stalin-1779902.

Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky

1811 – 1848

“What is, what ought to be”, was one of the first thoughts Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky had as he lived in peace within the Tsarist autocracy. Belinsky was born to a rural doctor in 1811, not being born to an elite family, he had worked for his own living. Although, he did not follow typical ways of rising within society such as following his father’s footsteps. Instead, Belinsky started as a freelance journalist. Being expelled from his university in 1832 because of political activity, he soon became one of the most influential revolutionary literary critics in Russia (Gunn, 2017).

“What is, is not what ought to be”, was a transformed thought that Belinsky passionately embraced. This change of thought came about by Russia’s position at the tipping edge of Europe (Matthewson, 2000). A contradictory battle of excluding Europe yet to become more like her fueled the stomachs of those who were pushed aside by the Tsarist regime. A new soul was born within the rising Western ideals (Epstein, 2006). A war began within Russia between those who were concerned with this mimicry and those who wanted to use them as a stepping stone towards power. Critics needed an area to voice their arguments against the issue of serfdom; the aristocracy needed an area to censor others and voice their own thoughts. Literacy was a perfect and equal battleground for both sides (Matthewson, 2000). Much of the population was conflicted, looking down at the revolutionaries’ stand on social and economic matters. Soviets viewed new ideals as going against the true judgement of Russia (Nahirny, 1962). Within this part of history, it was clear that there was a dire need for a human representative embracing virtue and ideal behaviour. Not one shaped by superficial utopian ideals, but one who could relate to the people in truth. This lionheart would be able to bring the people together under one common enemy. Once again, literature became the birthing place of this fresh hero of Russia (Matthewson, 2000).

Belinsky developed this lionheart. He showed that moving away from Tsarist rule, incorporating new ideas but keeping Russia’s culture was in the people’s best interests. Belinsky did this with the help of realism and truthfulness (Shkolnikov, 2003). Belinsky criticized many works that focused on the superficial and the unrealistic. Belinksy’s Letter to Gogol is a perfect representation of his strong feelings about truth. For years Gogol opposed the evils of serfdom and the Tsarist corruption, however when he published Selected Passages from a Correspondence with Friends, he wrote that his feelings were completely different. Gogol explained that the only reason why Russia was in a turmoil was because of the failings of individuals and the only way to reverse it was to follow the autocratic system (Epstein, 2006). Belinsky’s response, Letter to Gogol was a furious and famous reaction that was dubbed as a landmark of Russian intellectual history that showed the interconnectedness of Westernizing intelligentsia’s beliefs (Raeff, 1966, p.252). This passion is what earned him the nickname, “Furious Vissarion”.  Belinsky was very optimistic concerning the contribution to the revolution. He characterized the Russian movement as always moving up and growing forward. He frequently mentioned that proclaiming the truthfulness is essential to a change (Kliger, 2011). However, this idea of realism and truthfulness was sometimes too much for him. Belinsky wrestled harshly with the fact that truth and moral obligation in Russia did not entirely exist (Matthewson, 2000). Applying his standards to the world around him, he did not always see a land for a good virtuous man to exist within “the poisonous social atmosphere he breathes”. (Matthewson, 2000). Belinsky longed to create a hero because none existed. Belinksy’s lionheart was not a sovereign, a lawmaker or a conqueror. Neither was he a man of genius or supernatural, he would be a representative among equals. He would be not a member of the aristocracy. He would attack the Tsarist regime and protect its victims – serfs and peasants. The lionheart would have a great sense of národnost (Matthewson, 2000). Belinksy is revered as the author of the image of man. Belinsky defines art as revealing the truth, and the artist as a person who embraced this and therefore should be important to society (Fattal, 1973). Belinksy did and still does hold this position within Russia; critics of the 1850s and 1860s were armed with Belinsky’s lionheart and passion for their country. They continued to search for this new hero within.

Sylvia Dobosz

References

Epstein, M. (2006). The Demise of the First Secularization: The Church of Gogol and the Church of Belinsky. Studies in East European Thought, 58(2), 95-105. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20099938

Fattal, R. D. (1973). Russian radical criticism : the socio-political significance of Belinsky, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. McGill Russian Review, 22(1), 100. doi:10.2307/126609

Gunn, J. (2017). Dostoyevsky: a life of contradiction. Gloucestershire, GL: Amberley Publishing

Hans Kohn. (1955). Vissarion Belinsky, 1811-1848. A Study in the Origins of Social Criticism in Russia. The Russian Review, 14(2), 160-162. doi:10.2307/125577

Kliger, I. (2011). Genre and Actuality in Belinskii, Herzen, and Goncharov: Toward a Genealogy of the Tragic Pattern in Russian Realism. Slavic Review, 70(1), 45-66. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.70.1.0045

Mathewson, R. W. (2000). The positive hero in Russian literature. Evanston, IL: North Western University Press.

Nahirny, V. C. (1962). The Russian Intelligentsia: from Men of Ideas to Men of Convictions*. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 4(04), 403. doi:10.1017/s0010417500001389

Raeff, M. (1966). Russian Intellectual History: An Anthology. New York, NY: Prometheus Books

Randolph, J. (2007). The house in the garden: the Bakunin family and the romance of Russian idealism. Cornell University Press. Retrieved from  http://hdl.handle.net.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/2027/heb.32405.0001.001.

Shkolnikov, V. (2003). Imperial Realism: Belinsky and the Wretched of the Earth. Ulbandus Review, 7, 63- 72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25748123

Other Relevant Reading

Belinsky, V, G (1847). Letter to Gogol.

Belinsky, V, G. (1948). Selected philosophical works. Belfast: S.L.S. Legal Publications.

Gogol, N. (1847). Selected Passages with Correspondence with Friends.

Despotism

Identification

Despotism is defined as the exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel or oppressive fashion. It can mean tyranny, or a dictatorship, frequently in cases of despotism the despot is an autocrat, an individual ruling with absolute power. Despotism has occurred across the world throughout history. Traditional monarchies and religious powers are examples of despotism, with a king, Pope or Patriarch ruling with absolute power. Today despotism exists in countries in the Middle East, Africa and the developing world. Notable examples of despotic and autocratic states include North Korea, Syria and Saudi Arabia. Despots and the concept of despotism have existed throughout time in some way or another, from that tribal leaders and warrior champions to child kings and vicious modern dictators. “It can be said that fear of violence, and awe at the power and presumed honour and virtue of despots are the cornerstone of the republic and monarchy” (Imbruglia, 493).

Historical Significance

Despotism has played a huge role in human history and continues to do so today. Ancient societies were often despotic, with a single King or monarch ruling absolutely. It is important because it was the relied upon form of government and power in much of the world for much of our recorded history. To this day despotic societies and states exist, with dictators and monarchs who wield absolute power, often to the chagrin of their subjects. The contemporary moment has been irrevocably altered due to the existence of despots and despotic regimes. Despotism was all that the world knew for many years, with kings, popes and other absolute rulers sitting in a place of unquestioned superiority. It was during the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment period where the validity of despotism and its place in mans natural world was first questioned (Richter, 9). Despotism was the primary model of rule in much of the world for much of history; it can show us why so many world powers and ancient civilisations were ruled absolutely and why despotic rule exists in some states today. By understanding despotism and its associated power we can better understand contemporary dictators and at what points in societal history and development despotism thrives in. We can look back and understand the position that power and despotism played in the development of our history, see why it flourished and why it has slowly died out.

Key Historical Proponents

The idea of despotism and the concept itself was a much discussed topic during the Enlightenment and after the French Revolution. Many philosophical thinkers had theories and ideas on despotisms role in societal development and on our species as a whole. Many famous enlightenment era thinkers had specific views on despotism and its place in contemporary culture. Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu all had opinions on despotisms place in our society. Voltaire and Rousseau had opposing views on the matter of course, Voltaire believing in enlightened despotism, or the right of a single leader, group or class to rule absolutely with its subjects best interests in mind. Rousseau believed in the inalienable right of the individual to rule him, and those despotic forces whether good or bad in their exercise of power should be avoided. Rousseau’s strong emphasis on nationalism and the individual member of society is at logger heads with despotism, as it does not allow for one single, all powerful entity. The traditional monarchies of European superpowers, such as the British Royal family, the Tsars of Russia and the French monarchy were all despotic, and either changed their role in their state or was snuffed out by the new emerging educated middle class. Overall Despotism was a hotly contested and used word during the Enlightenment era and the French Revolution, living on today through a small handful of dictators and proponents of absolute rule.

Eric Goessele

 

 

Bibliography

Imbruglia, Giorlamo. “Two Principles of Despotism: Diderot between Machiavelli and de la Boëtie.” History of European Ideas Vol. 34, Issue 4 (2008): 490-499.

Richter, Melvin. “The Concept of Despotism and L’abus de Mots.” Contributions to the History of Concepts Vol. 3, No. 1 (2007): 5-22.

Boesche, Roger. “Fearing Monarchs and Merchants: Montesquieu’s Two Theories of Despotism.” The Western Political Quarterly Vol. 43, No. 4 (1990): 741-761.

McAdam, James I. “Rousseau and the Friends of Despotism.” The University of Chicago Press Vol. 74, No. 1 (1963): 34-43.