Jeremy Bentham

February 15^th, 1748 – June 6^th, 1832

Jeremy Bentham made many significant historical contributions throughout his life, influencing politics, and women’s suffrage. Through the large progressions surrounding his time Bentham draws influence from all different aspect of history. For example, his work within law and political reforms is still influential today. Bentham believed in democracy, specifically representative democracy, focusing his efforts on restricting the power of the “sinister interests” of people in power throughout Bentham’s lifetime. More specifically Bentham’s reforms included the reformation of The Substantive Law, Codification of the Law, and The Doctrine of Judicial Precedent. The reformation continues to show influence in our own judicial systems today, Bentham based this reform on the relation of law and equality. Substantive laws seek to enforce how citizens should behave and Bentham believed that in order for this to enacted there must be equality within the law. Bethan strongly believed in a system of law primarily based on utility (Utilitarianism), and if every person enacted this principle Europe would benefit significantly. He aimed for equality and believed in the fair possession of goods and property. Utility becomes Bentham’s main focus for the duration of his career, and he seeks to apply this to everyday politics and everyday life. For instance, mentioned in “In Bentham’s view, the desire for all pleasure and the aversion to pain lie at the root of all human action,” Bentham attempted to balance pain verse pleasure looking to understand that pain is the evil and pleasure is the good. Bentham’s ideals surrounding Utility focused on the fact the we might always be successful but we need the correct and crucial information to make the correct decision. Through the development of Bentham’s ideologies, he believed that if each individual acted in this way it would better humanity as a whole While Jeremy Bentham progressed his thoughts towards utility, the unequal political and societal systems that embraced pleasure influenced his thoughts greatly. This allowed Bentham to consider the consequences to our actions which becomes a major influence in the modern world. The general good of all people should be reflected in ones’ actions, especially politicians, and Bentham even goes as far to say, “no legislation can deny his proper objective- the promotion of the happiness of the members of the community subjected to him.” Thus, Bentham’s ideals go on to influence modern politics, as mentioned Bentham’s ideas surround the general good are the main focus of political leaders today.

Much like Bentham’s contributions to politics and his theory of Utility Bentham played an important role in the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Throughout Bentham’s career he made significant comments surrounding women’s suffrage and their value in society. Bentham made it clear that he saw the value in women and especially in their abilities within society, Bentham stated, “of the two sexes of which the species is composed how comes all natural right to political benefits to be combined to one?” Bentham seemed to be confused with the balance of political, he recognized the value in women and wondered if both sexes equal why should all power be subjected to one sex? Bentham seemed to express that all men and women were equal, later stating when he was asked “Why admit women to the right of suffrage?” he replied with “why exclude them?” Through this quote Benham makes his opinion clear regarding women and their right to suffrage. Although Bentham did not contribute to any actual political reform towards Women suffrage, his ability to recognize the injustices influenced the shift in women’s eventual rights. Once again, his ability to acknowledge the mistreatment and absurdity in the suppression of women further and influenced the Women’s suffrage that effects all women’s lives throughout the modern world.

Throughout Jeremey Bentham’s life there were many significant influences that helped to influence his theories and ideologies. For example, Bentham was largely influenced by John Locke and David Hume, he often commented on their own works and applied their knowledge to his own. Bentham was largely influenced by his families practice of law, and this might have been where avocation for political reform began. His family was extremely religious and his mother focused greatly on superstition, which may have influenced his idea surrounding the consequences of our actions and understanding the effects of your choices on all members of society. Debatably one of the most influential influences was the massive social and economic change taking place throughout Bentham’s life. Such as, the industrial revolution, which may have also had an influence in his ideals surround consequences for your actions. For example, what would be the consequences of the industrial revolution, and a new the new way of life stemming through his lifetime?

Abigail Morrison

Work Cited

Frederick N. Judson. “A Modern View of the Law Reforms of Jeremy Bentham.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan. 1910), pp. 41-54 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1110951

Bentham, Jeremy, Utilitarianism Progressive Publishing Company, 1890

https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eikSAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=jeremy+bentham+utilitarianism&ots=A5pbvKmJRn&sig=JTe-tiYNl5fdL-4EplAUcVe6ZrA#v=onepage&q=jeremy%20bentham%20utilitarianism&f=false

Schofield, Phillip. Bentham: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum International Company Inc., 2009

Chernock, Arianne, Men and the Making of the Modern British Feminism California: Stanford University Press, 2009. https://books.google.ca/books?id=WOPe32ADV_AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Crimmins, James E. Secular Utilitarianism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Atkinson, Milner Charles. Jeremy Bentham: His Life and Work. London: Methuen and Company, 1905.

 

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill was born on May 20, 1806 in Pentonville, London United Kingdom to Harriet Burrow and James Mill. James Mill had considerable influence on John’s life (W.L). His father was a driving force for John’s academic career, and was the person who introduced John to the theory of utilitarianism, due to James Mill’s friendship with Jeremy Bentham (W.L).

When discussing John Stuart Mill it is important to discuss the role his father played in his life. James Mill constantly pushed John academically. It was his father that introduced John Stuart Mills to utilitarianism, but he was also a figure in  life that greatly limited him. John’s mental crisis in 1826, was said to have been caused by the intense stress of his education and the continual influence of his domineering father (W.L). It was only after his father’s death that John began to understand the breadth of his intellectual freedom.

Mill was a supporter of utilitarianism during his teenage years.  His theory is that society should do whatever brings the most amount of happiness to the greatest number of people (Giovanni, Piacquadio). It is understandable to see how many people would support this idea, as it seems logical. The contradictors of utilitarianism believe that this idea is dangerous as it sacrifices the rights of few for the pleasure of many. After suffering his mental crisis in 1826, Mill began seeing the limitation of utilitarianism, and strived to find a theory that had no limitations(Giovanni, Piacquadio).

After Mill’s mental crisis, he adapted his theory of utilitarianism, and his new theory later became known as the Harm Principle, which was first mentioned in his book On Liberty (Holtug).  The Harm Principle can be divided into two parts; the first part being that an individual can do whatever actions they please in society, since these actions only pertain to the individual (Holtug). The second part is that society can intervene when the individual’s actions begin to endanger the lives of those around them and others (Holtug). When the Harm Principle was first introduced, many people saw this theory as a way to defend people’s hedonistic actions (Hoag). An example of the Harm Principle is that a person can drink themselves to death alone, but the moment they get behind a wheel and drive, they are now endangering the lives of those around them. Mill’s theory is still used today to defend the freedom of the person, especially in Western societies. A modern day example of using the Harm Principle has been when defending the rights of the LTGBQ persons and community.  The way that a member of the LTBGQ society is living makes them happy, and while you may be offended by their lifestyle, it should be accepted as their lifestyle is not causing you any physical harm. There should be no laws preventing their lifestyle.  It is interesting because in Victorian England, many of Mill’s theories were praised because they were ideals to the people who had been marginalized under the monarch rule (Holtug). These notions can be parallel to many of today’s issues as some Americans are getting frustrated with the degree of control the government has over things that should not be of concern to them, including abortion and sexuality.  It is felt that the government should focus their efforts on the economy and protecting their citizens.

Mill was very vocal about a women’s place in the society. In his novel, The Subjection of Women, which is seen as an important piece of Victorian modern feminism literature, he connected the idea of a women’s place in society to his idea of liberty (McGlynn, Ward). Which connected back to the Harm Principle. Mill felt that a woman should not be limited to being a housewife or limited to the perceived female-oriented jobs. Mill felt that there was no harm in a woman being involved with the non-stereotyped roles and jobs, as he felt that they could bring value and a different perspective (McGlynn, Ward).  Therefore, there should be no harm if either a man or woman fills a job or role as long as they are best suited for the job.  This is still an issue today and is relevant as there are some men that still believe that women should stay at home or that men are better. The issues that women are second class citizens, that they are not as capable as men and that they should only work in female-oriented jobs are still prominent in developing countries.

Based on the Harm Principal, Mill placed a lot of value on the rights and freedoms of the individual, when there is no harm to others. Mill was also a supporter of commerce and an “inheritor of the utilitarian tradition that had been placed on person growth”, and because of this warned against societies that suppressed the individuality of the person (Mishra 297-298).

Mill’s theories  are as relevant today as they were when they were first introduced centuries ago. In today’s world, many people are very informed, and the new and different issues can apply the Harm Principle.  Part of the issues today is with some governments that want to have control and feel that the individual cannot decide or protect themselves; but if society followed the Harm Principle then there would not need as much government intervention.  It can be interpreted that some governments are legislating their views in the hope that they can influence others to have the same beliefs.  The continued use of the Harm Principle in legal issues further demonstrates the relevancy and timelessness of this theory.

Tanya Hodkinson

Work Cited

Hoag, Robert W. “Happiness and Freedom: Recent Work on John Stuart Mill.” Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 15, no. 2, 1986, pp. 188–199. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2265386.

Holtug, Nils. “The Harm Principle.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 5, no. 4, 2002, pp. 357–389. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27504250.

Mishra, Pankaj. Age of Anger. [New York]. Picador, 2017. Print.

Piacquadio, Paolo Giovanni. “A Fairness Justification of Utilitarianism.” Econometrica, vol. 85, no. 4, July 2017, pp. 1261-1276. EBSCOhost, doi: 10.3982/ECTA14151.

Ward, Ian and Clare McGlynn. “Women, Law and John Stuart Mill.” Women’s History Review, vol. 25, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 227-253. EBSCOhost, doi 10.1080/09612025.2015.1039350

W. L. “The Enduring Influence of John Stuart Mill.” The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 41, no. 4, 1982, pp. 332–332. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3486209

Further Readings 

1. On Liberty By: John Stuart Mill
2. The Subjection of Women By: John Stuart Mill
3. Principles of Political Economy By: John Stuart Mill
4. Utilitarianism By: John Stuart Mill

Judith Butler

Judith Butler is an American philosopher best known for her stances on feminism, gender roles in society and lesbian and gay rights movements. She is highly educated with her B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. all achieved from Yale University, and she has been a teaching professor at several academically appraised universities. On top of all this, Butler is the Hannah Arendt Professor of Philosophy at the European Graduate School located in Switzerland. She is an influence to all generations and is an important advocate for marginalized groups in society.

Historically speaking, Butler’s contributions are not very well known due to most of her work being done in the present and very recent past, however her work is still and always will be very relevant and important. The history surrounding women’s rights and individual sexuality is harmful, brutal and unjust, it is from the works of people like Butler that these platforms have transformed and improved dramatically in this modern era. So it is obvious to say that Butler’s efforts and views today have a huge impact on the future and how society changes over time, although it is also evident that she has already contributed and impacted the history of many movements.

Butler’s impacts on history are generated from her published work including several books written on the subjects of gender and sex. Her very first book was all about the idea of desire based on the opinion of Hegel and was titled Subjects of Desire: Hegelian Reflections in Twentieth-Century France. With this book she brought forth different interpretations and viewpoints that were seen in society in the 20th century. By introducing these different opinions in her published work, Butler was on the road to generating a more inclusive yet vastly opinionated environment surrounding all types of controversial topics. This type of environment had not been seen much at this time due to the fact that topics like this were taboo and thought of as unnatural to speak openly about, Butler helped crush that narrative.

Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, known to be one of Butler’s most well known books, was published in 1990. During this time, third wave feminism was practically in full swing and continued to grow into a massive global movement. It is obvious to see that Butler’s work had an influence on this, her book was written all about social creations and ideas, stereotyping and the injustice based on it. Third wave feminism is known as a more modern movement of feminism that is based on these same issues along with basic women’s rights and everything else feminists are fighting to change. Butler definitely sparked the flame of some individuals in the late 20th century who now call themselves proud feminists in 2017.

 

That same book, Gender Trouble, is also said to be the main influence on the creation of what is known as queer theory. Queer theory is an approach that studies gender as a nonessential part of one’s identity, since it is a social construct, gender and sexuality are looked at as non- correlating characteristics. Queer theory just shows how gender, sex and desire are not connected, how they differ and that they are individualistic. This entire body of thought did not even exist until Butler and other modern thinking individuals expressed their thoughts and published them into society. The creation of an entire way of thinking that was entirely new to the 20th century was generated by Butler, and that is her major historical impact.

Without her opinionated influence on this queer theory creation, Butler’s impact would be minimal and society would appear so different to what it is today. It would not be continuously working towards improving equal rights and freedoms for all no matter the gender or sexuality expressed by individuals, and it is so important that this continues to happen. The impact Judith Butler has had on the topics of gender, sexuality, feminism and social constructs will always be substantial to all individuals in society.

Utilitarianism

Identification

Utilitarianism is a philosophical concept which asserts that actions and decisions one makes must be made with the goal of producing the maximum amount of benefit for the greatest possible amount of people (Poupko, 1974). Although this philosophical movement has roots in Ancient Greek Epicureanism (a movement which stressed the importance of maintaining one’s own physical and psychological well-being [Rosen, 2003]), utilitarianism rose to popularity in seventeenth-century England and gained prominence due to several influential papers and theses; the most influential among these being penned by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (Eggleston and Miller, 2014).

Historical Significance

Throughout history, utilitarianism has had an indelible effect upon influential, and often controversial, actions and policies. In nearly every controversial historical decision, one can find some variation of utilitarian thinking; where the lesser of two evils was chosen (Poupko). Most democratic states and their systems of punishment are built upon utilitarian ideologies, and as such regularly make decisions based on a “good for the majority” philosophy – utilitarianism (Bykvist, 2014). Because of the utilitarian foundation of state governments, some of the most controversial historical events became a reality due to utilitarian-like reasoning, from the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Steinfels, 1995) to the October FLQ Crisis (Ferguson, 1990). In each of these situations, multiple options designed to deal with the matter at hand existed, and countries picked the path which they believed would produce the least amount of hurt and grievance – in other words, striving to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people (Steinfels; Ferguson). Utilitarianism has also influenced how the world looks at the future – once a people who used resources and waged war recklessly, the human race now finds itself questioning its duty to future generations – does one owe anything to their descendants? Utilitarianism’s equal consideration of the happiness of all – no matter when they live – asserts that one has a moral responsibility to conserve natural resources and strive to create an ideal world for future generations (Mulgan, 2014). All in all, utilitarianism was, is, and always will be an incredibly influential school of thought with extremely relevant implications.

Key Historical Proponents

Utilitarian-like ideas were first proposed by Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, who developed a hedonistic theory of self-care and preservation (Rosen). These ideas were resurrected in 17^th century England and subsequently modified by Jeremy Bentham to create a theory which stipulated that actions should create the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest amount of people – utilitarianism (Shaver, 2013). From the beginning, this way of living drew criticism from some of the most refined thinkers in Europe. Eminent 19^th century philosopher Madame de Staël criticized this theory because it failed to consider the sentimentalities that often sway human decision-making, claiming that no theory could be truly impartial if the creation of pleasure was the point (De Champs, 2015). Staël’s partner, Benjamin Constant, similarly criticized Bentham’s utilitarianism because its claims could be used to legitimize oppressive regimes who claim to do certain things in order to benefit their people (De Champs). John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), son of Bentham’s peer James Mill, also wrote several treatises developing Bentham’s hedonistic idea of utilitarianism into one concerned with right and wrong for all (Rosen). A final influential opponent to utilitarianism comes from British 20^th century philosopher Bernard Williams, who posited in his “Jim and the Indians” scenario that utilitarianism places too much emphasis on the responsibility of the individual making a decision and not enough on the circumstances which forced him to decide (Williams, 1973). On the whole, utilitarianism is by its nature a controversial theory which has attracted numerous celebrated supporters and opponents.

Nia Langdon

 

Bibliography

Bykvist, K. (2014). Utilitarianism in the twentieth century. In B. Eggleston and D.E. Miller (Eds), The Cambridge companion to utilitarianism (103-124). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

De Champs, E. (2015). Enlightenment and utility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Eggleston, B. and Miller, D.E. (2014). Introduction. In B. Eggleston and D.E. Miller (Eds.), The cambridge companion to utilitarianism (325-347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ferguson, R. (1990, Oct 05). OCTOBER CRISIS. The Globe and Mail (1936-Current). Retrieved from http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/1269970362?accountid=12347

Mulgan, T. (2014). Utilitarianism and our obligations to future people. In B. Eggleston and D.E. Miller (Eds.), The cambridge companion to utilitarianism (325-347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Poupko, C. K. (1974). Political ideas underlying the utilitarian approach to punishment. Philosophy Today, 18(4), 285. Retrieved from http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/1301474658?accountid=12347.

Rosen, F. (2003). Classical utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. New York: Routledge.

Shaver, R. (2013). Utilitarianism: Bentham and Rashdall. In Crisp, R. (Ed.), The oxford handbook of the history of ethics (292-312). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Steinfels, P. (1995, Jul 29). Fifty years later, the debate over dropping the atomic bomb has widened. New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://libaccess.mcmaster.ca.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/docview/109448889?accountid=12347

Williams, B. (1973). A critique of utilitarianism. In J.J.C Smart and B. Williams (Eds), Utilitarianism: for and against. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.